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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/easystepsinarchiOOhodg 


EASY  STEPS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


AND 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


THIS  WORK  CONTAINS  EVERYTHING  THAT  IS 
NECESSARY  FOR  A  COMPLETE,  SELF-TEACH 
ING  COURSE  IN  ARCHITECTURE.  IT  COM 
MENCES  WITH  A  DESCRIPTION  OF  DRAWING 
INSTRUMENTS,  ETC.  RULES  FOR  LAYING  OUT 
SIMPLE  DRAWINGS  AND  EXECUTING  SAME 
ARE  GIVEN,  AND  THE  STUDENT  IS  TAUGHT 
STEP  BY  STEP  TO  DRAW  TO  SCALE,  FIRST 
THE  PLANS,  NEXT  THE  ELEVATIONS,  AND 
FINALLY  THE  DETAILS  OF  A  COTTAGE,  INCLUD- 
ING FOUNDATIONS,  WALLS,  DOORS,  WINDOWS, 
STAIRS  AND  ALL  OTHER  ITEMS  REQUIRED  FOR 
FINISHING    A   SMALL   BUILDING    COMPLETE 


FULLY  ILLUSTRATED 


BY      FRED     T.     HODGSON 


Special  Exclusive  Edition 
Printed   kv 

FREDERICK  J.    DRAKE  &   CO. 

EXPRESSLY    for 

SEARS,  ROEBUCK  &  COMPANY 

CHICAGO,   ILL. 


Copyright  1911 

BY 

Frederick  J.  Drake 


73-XO 
PREFACE. 


In  preparing  and  adapting  the  present  work,  the 
Editor  feels  that  he  has  supplied  wants  the  ambitious 
young  workmen  have  long  felt.  When  a  workman 
reaches  a  certain  stage  of  perfection  he  naturally 
reaches  out  for  more  information  in  connection  with 
his  occupation,  no  matter  what  it  may  be.  The  Car- 
penter, the  Bricklayer,  the  Mason  and  the  Decorator  all 
desire  to  know  more  of  the  art  of  architecture  than  can 
be  acquired  on  the  building  or  in  the  workshop ;  and 
this  book  is  put  together  in  order  to  give  them  an  op- 
portunity of  getting  that  information  and  I  am  in- 
clined to  think  that  what  is  offered  herewith,  while  not 
by  any  means  a  complete  or  comprehensive  work  on 
architecture,  if  thoroughly  studied,  will  convey  to  the 
student  a  sufficient  knowledge  that  will  enable  him  to 
grasp  the  main  points  in  architecture  and  styles,  to 
such  an  extent,  that  he  will  be  able  at  least,  to  talk 
intelligently  on  the  subject. 

"The  Easy  Lessons  in  Architecture,"  embodied 
in  the  work  have  been  used  for  many  years  as  a  sort 
of  catechism  of  the  art,  while  the  part  on  architectural 
styles  is  about  the  most  complete  ever  published  in  so 
small  a  space.  The  latter  is  adapted  from  the  German 
of  Rosengarten. 

I  think  that  all  readers  of  this  little  book  will  be 
satisfied  with  its  contents,  and  that  every  workman  who 

1 


2  PREFACE 

peruses  it  with  a  view  of  enlarging  his  knowledge  on 
architecture,  will  be  satisfied  that  he  knows  much  more 
when  he  lays  down  the  book,  than  he  did  before  he  took 
it  up.  If  this  is  the  case,  and  I  am  sure  it  will  be,  I 
shall  feel  that  my  efforts  in  this  direction  have  not  been 
made  in  vain. 

Fred  T.  Hodgson. 
Collingwood,  Ont.t  June  15th,  1907. 


INDEX 

Page 
Preface   1 

PART  I 

Early  History  of  Architecture — Construction — Early  Brit- 
ish, New  Zealand  and  Thibetan  Architecture — Ancient 
and  Mediaeval  Architecture — Styles  of  Architecture — 
Greek  and  Roman — The  Arch — Greek,  Doric,  Ionic, 
Corinthian  and  Composite — Roman  Tuscan,  Doric, 
Ionic,  Corinthian  and  Composite — Two  Broad  Styles 
of  Gothic,  including  Early  English,  Geometrical, 
Pointed  Curvilinear,  Decorated  and  Perpendicular 
Styles — The  Romanesque  and  Other  Styles — General 
Details  of  Grecian  and  Roman  Styles 9 

CLASSIC  STYLES. 

Romanesque,  Byzantine,  Florentine,  Modern  Roman,  Vene- 
tian and  the  Renaissance — Columns,  Colonnades,  and 
the  Orders — Temples,  Arcades,  Spandrils  and  Trac- 
ing— Entablatures,  Architraves,  Frieze  and  Pediments 
— Ornamentation  of  the  Various  Orders — Metopes  and 
Cornices — Consoles,  Brackets,  Trusses  and  Mouldings 
— Examples  of  Modern  Italian  Styles  for  Doors  and 
Windows — Caryatides,  Telamones,  Atlantes  and  Per- 
sian        12 

ON  TliE  ORDERS  OF  GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ARCHITEC- 
TURE. 

Number  of  Orders,  Primary  and  Secondary — Orders  De- 
scribed in  Detail — Proportion  of  the  Orders,  Peculiar 
Features  of  Each  Order — Elevation  and  Plans  of  the 
Various  Orders  Illustrated 21 

ON  PLANS,  FOUNDATIONS  AND  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF 
ARCHES. 

How  to  Commence  a  Building — Plans  and  Other  Drawings 
— Preparations  of  Foundation,  Natural  and  Artificial 
Foundation — Concrete  and  Portland  Cement — Inverted 
Arches — Arches  Generally — Flat  Arches,  Stone  Arches, 
Brick  Arches  and  Joggled  Arches 27 

3 


.oc^-y! 


4  INDEX 

Page 
GENERAL  DETAIL  OF  MEDIAEVAL  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Chief  Feature  of  Gothic  Architecture — Arches,  Pillars, 
Buttresses,  Towers,  Spires,  Pinnacles,  Traceried  Win- 
dows ana  High-pitched  Roofs — French,  German,  Eng- 
lish and  Norman  Styles — Masonry,  Brickwork,  Butt- 
resses, Groins  and  Towers — Churches,  Cathedrals  and 
Gothic  Buildings  Generally — Plate  Tracery,  Bar 
Tracery,  Mullions  and  Cross  Muntins — Wheel  or  Rose 
Windows — Trefoil  and  Square  Head  Windows,  Tran- 
som, Hoods,  Hood  Mouldings  and  Dripstones 34 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  ROOFS. 

King  and  Queen  Post  Roofs — Rafters,  Purlins,  Braces, 
Trusses,  Posts  and  Struts,  High  Pitched  Roofs — 
Vantled  Roofs,  Pent  Roofs,  Pendents  and  Groins — 
Divisions  in  Churches,  Arrangements  of  Different 
Parts,  Aisles,  Transept,  Nave,  Choir,  Chancel  and 
Clearstory — Triforium,  Porch,  Canopy  and  Vestibule — 
Ancient  Construction — Greek  and  Roman — Norman 
and   Mediaeval    45 

ON  MILITARY  AND  DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

Greek  and  Roman  Construction — Temples,  Triumphal 
Arches,  Amphitheatre,  Baths,  Basilicas  and  Other 
Places  of  Amusement  and  Games — Middle  Age  Castles, 
Forts  and  Other  Defences  with  Parapets,  Turrets, 
Barbicans  and  Battlements — Halls,  Dormers,  Oriels 
and    Posterns   51 

ON   THE   DEVELOPMENT    OF   MEDIAEVAL   ARCHITEC- 
TURE. 

The  Meaning  of  the  Term  Gothic — Classic  Revival — Prin- 
ciples of  Gothic— Distinguishing  Features  with  Illus- 
trated Examples — Various  Styles  of  Gothic — Mixture 
of  Styles,  Florid  and  Flamboyant  Styles — Norman — 
Romanesque  and  Decorated  Styles — Sub-division  of 
Gothic   Architecture    55 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  AND  DISTINGUISHING  FEATURES 

OF  SUCCEEDING  STYLES  FROM  THE  ANCIENT 

GRECIAN  TO  THE  ROMANESQUE  STYLE. 

Racial  Influence  on  Architecture,  Indian,  Egyptian, 
Assyrian  and  Chinese — Peculiarities  of  these  Influ- 
ences— Origin  of  Various  Details  of  Building — Dates 
of  the  Origin  of  the  Styles — Character  of  Roman 
Workmanship — Items    67 


INDEX  5 

Page 
ON  THE  ROMANESQUE  STYLE. 

The  Transition  Period — What  the  Term  Covers — Saxon, 
Norman,  Tombard  and  Byzantine — Description  of 
Styles— Second    Transitional    Period     73 

ON   THE    MODERN    STYLES    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Decline  of  Gothic  Architecture — The  Introduction  of 
Italian,  Florentine  and  Other  Styles — Fine  Italian 
Examples — Present  Styles  of  Architecture — Truth  in 
Building    78 


PART  II. 

THE  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLES  OF  ANTIQUITY— INDIAN 
ARCHITECTURE,  ROCK  TEMPLES. 

Brahma,  Siva,  Vishnu,  Buddha  or  Gautama — Three  Thou- 
sand Years  Before  Christ,  General  Characteristics  of 
Cave  Temples  of  Kylas  and  Ellora — Buddhist  Sym- 
bolism— Rock  Cut  Decoration — Indian  Pillars — Topes 
and  Cupolas — Monuments  in  Java  and  Boro  Budor — 
Pagodas,  i.  e.,  Sacred  Houses 81 

JAINA  ARCHITECTURE. 

Temples  in  Madera,  Tanjore  and  Chillinbarum,  Pagoda  of 
Juggernaut — Massiveness  of  Stone  Work — Sculptured 
Cornices  and  Pillars — Mouldings  and  Capitals 94 

EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

Inundations  of  the  Nile — Effects  on  Style  of  Building — 
The  Cities  of  Thebes,  Memphis  and  Alexandria — Devel- 
opment of  Egyptian  Culture — Woods  of  the  Ramases 
— The  Temples  of  Luxor  and  of  Karnak,  Rock 
Temples  of  Ipsamboul  and  the  Monuments  of  Nubia, 
Derri  and  Kalabache  and  the  Temples  of  Upper  Egypt 
— Philae,  Elephantina,  Syene,  Ombos  and  Esneh — The 
Pyramids,  their  Construction  and  Peculiarities — 
Temple  of  Edfou,  the  Sphinxes,  Rams  and  Other  Sculp- 
tures— The  Pylons  of  Luxor,  Statues  and  Obelisks, 
Ornamentation  and  Carvings,  Development  of  the 
Lotus,  Ground  Plan  of  the  Palace  of  Karnak,  Entrance 
to  Rock  Temple  of  Ipsamboul  with  Colossal  Statues 
in  Front— Hall  of  Palace  in  Karnak 99 


6  INDEX 

Page 
WEST  ASIATIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

Babylonian,  Chaldean  and  Assyrian — Growth  and  Develop- 
ment, Cuniform  Writing,  Excavations  of  Assyrian 
Ruins,  Babylonia,  Nineveh,  Khorsabad,  and  Koyrind- 
schick,  Assyrian  Mosaics,  Pavements  and  Walls — 
Griffins,  Winged  Bulls,  Lions  with  Human  Heads 
Were  Frequently  Sculptured,  Ornamentation  from 
Nimroud,  Nineveh  and  Elsewhere — The  Temple  of 
Baal  or  Tower  of  Babel — The  Hanging  Gardens  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  and  Semizamis — Pillars  and  Col- 
umns, Capitals  and  Bases — Assyrian  Ornamentation.   130 

PHOENICIAN  AND   ISRAELITISH   ARCHITECTURE. 

Little  Known  of  the  Buildings  of  These  People — No  Ruins 
Left  Us — Solomon's  Temple — Temple  of  Herod  the 
Great — The  Pillars  of  Jachin — Firm,  and  Boaz — 
Strong,  Were  Prominent  Features  in  Jewish  Temple 
Building  They  Possessed  a  Symbolical  Meaning — Jew- 
ish Tombs  and  Sepulchers   142 

MEDIAN  AND  PERSIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

Influence  of  Egyptian,  Assyrian  and  Greek  Art  and  Median 
and  Persian  Architecture — The  Ruins  of  Persepolis 
Works  of  Xerxes  and  Darius — The  Workmanship  and 
Materials  of  the  Medes  and  Persians 146 

CHINESE  ARCHITECTURE. 

China  and  the  Worship  of  Buddha  Peculiarities  of  Chinese 
Architecture — Porcelain  Pagodas  and  Pavilions,  Fan- 
tastic Buildings    152 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE,  ROMAN  CHRIS- 
TIAN   BASILICAS,    AND    CIRCULAR 
ARCHITECTURE. 
Early  Christian   Art — Romanesque   Art — Art  in   Constan- 
tinople— Byzantine   Art — Division  of  Early  Christian 
Churches — Interior    Arrangement — Plans    and    Eleva- 
tions of  Early  Basilicas,  Towers — Spires — Baptisteries 
— Symbols  and  Emblems  God  the  Father 156 

BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE. 
A  New  Departure — Eastern  Influences — Arabian  Practice 
— Peculiarities  of  Byzantine  Style — Ste.  Sophia  Con- 
stantinople— Description  of  the  Building — The  Dome 
System — Interior  Decorations  Barrel  Vaults — Woman's 
Galleries — Other  Greek  Churches  in  Byzantine  Style 
— Columns  and  Capitals — Details  from  St.  Mark  at 
Venice — Armenian  Influence  on  the  Byzantine  Style. .   174 


INDEX  7 

Page 
BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE   IN   ARMENIA  AND 
GEORGIA. 

Church   Architecture   of   Eleventh    Century — Peculiarities 

of   Style — Ornamental   Work,   Domical   Roofs 193 

RUSSO-BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE. 

Russian  or  Slavonic  Architecture,  Peculiarities  of  the  Style 
—History  of  the  Development  of  the  Style — Churches 
at  Kief,  Novogorod  and  Moscow — Cathedral  of  Vassili, 
Blankenoy — Color  in  Russian  Architecture — Towers 
with  Bulb-shaped  Domes 195 

MAHOMETAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

Arabian  Architecture  in  General — The  Religion  of  Islam, 
Arabian  Style  Proper,  Mosques,  Palaces  and  Minarets, 
Interior  Arrangements,  Details  of  Style,  Arabian 
Arches,  Wall  Decoration,  Outlines  of  Structures 202 

ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE  IN  SPAIN. 

The  Style  in  Cordova  A.  D.  912  Under  Abd  el  Rahman  III. 
— Building  of  the  Giralda,  the  Alcazar  and  the  Alham- 
bra — Plaster    Decorations — Costly    Embellishments...   213 

ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE  IN  EGYPT  AND  SICILY. 

The  Mosques  of  Cairo — Arches  in  Egyptian  Mosques — 
Splendor  of  Some  of  the  Buildings — Domestic  Archi- 
tecture— Palaces   and   Churches   in  Sicily 224 

PERSO-ARABIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

Influence  of  Old  Style  on  the  New— The  Arch  in  Persian 
Architecture,  Mosques,  Palaces  and  Tombs — Painting 
and  Color  in  this  Style 228 

ARABIAN    ARCHITECTURE    IN    INDIA. 

Turco-Tartar  Forms — Magnificence  of  Delhi  and  Agra,  The 

Taj  Mehal   233 

TURKISH    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Cathedral  of  Ste.  Sophia  Formed  the  Great  Model  for 
this  Style — Domes,  Minarets,  and  Bulbs  the  Chief 
Features  of  Turkish  Style  of  Building — Wall  Decora- 
tion and  Color   237 

THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE. 

The  Revival  of  Classic  Architecture — Beginnings  in  Italy 
and  Elsewhere — The  Certosa  at  Pavia — Early  Floren- 
tine, Venetian  and  Lombard  Renaissance — The  Pitti 
Palace   and   the   Palace   of   Riccardi   as    Examples — 


8  INDEX 

Page 

Churches  of  San  Lorenzo  and  San  Spirito — Venetian 
Examples  in  Venice — Library  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice  by 
Sansovino — Palladian  Examples  at  Vicenza — Palladio's 
Influence  on  the  Renaissance  in  Style — Vignola's 
Influence  on  the  New  Style — Michel  Angelo  Does  Much 
for  the  Renaissance — Bramante  and  His  Profits — 
Works  of  Michel  Angelo — St.  Peter's  in  Rome — The 
Dome  of  St.  Peter's — Building  in  Genoa — The  Archi- 
tect Galeazzo  Abesso  of  Genoa — Details  of  Decoration 
and  General  Embellishment — Later  Renaissance 244 

RENAISSANCE  IN   ENGLAND  AND   FRANCE. 

The  Giocondo,  an  Italian  Architect,  Became  Chief  Ad- 
viser to  Louis  XII.  in  Matters  of  Architecture — The 
New  Style  Adopted  Generally  in  France — The  Build- 
ing of  the  Tuileries  and  the  Louvre — Rich  Interior 
Decorations — Mansard  and  His  Style — The  Rococo 
Style  and  Departure  from  the  True  Renaissance — The 
Renaissance  in  England,  Known  as  the  "Elizabethan 
Style,"  Took  Root  About  1550;  Its  Best  Exponent  Was 
Inigo  Jones — Wollatin  Hall,  Palace  of  Whitehall  and 
Others,  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  by  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren  Is  a  Striking  Example  of  this  Style  in 
England — German  Renaissance — Renaissance  in  Spain 
and  Other  Countries   297 

THE   ROCOCO   STYLE   OF   THE   RENAISSANCE. 

Change  of  Style — Flimsiness  of  Later  Innovations — Change 
for  Better  in  the  Style — Examples  of  the  Style — Deco- 
ration in  this  Style 324 

TIMBER  ARCHITECTURE. 

Wooden  Buildings  of  Norway  and  Switzerland — Carvings 
in  Various  Styles — Framed  Buildings  in  the  Harz 
Mountains — Details  of  Woodwork 339 

TABLES   OF   STYLES   BY   COMPARISON. 

Different  Styles  Mentioned  and  Their  Esthetic  Value — 
Expression  of  Styles— Closing  Remarks 349 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE. 

BEING     "STEPPING     STONES"     TO     THE     AC- 
QUIREMENT   OF   A   KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE 
NOBLE  ART  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

Part  I. 

The  following  series  of  Questions  and  Answers  were 
first  prepared  by  Mr.  Thomas  Mitchell,  and  published 
in  London  some  years  ago,  and  is  still  a  standard 
text-book  in  many  schools  and  science  colleges.  Some 
time  ago  I  slightly  revised  it,  and  Americanized  it  as 
it  were;  and  have  since  enlarged  it  and  made  it  more 
useful  by  additions  of  some  new  matter  and  pertinent 
illustrations;  making  the  work  of  much  more  value  to 
American  readers  than  it  formerly  was.  I  feel  as- 
sured that  the  work  as  now  presented  will  be  favorably 
received  by  every  carpenter  and  builder  who  desires 
to  know  something  of  the  history  and  theory  of  that 
most  useful  of  the  Arts — Architecture.  If  this  work 
should  be  the  means  of  creating  an  interest  in  the  Art, 
in  my  readers,  I  shall  be  well  repaid  for  my  efforts. 

QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS. 

EARLY    HISTORY    OP    ARCHITECTURE 

Q.     What  is  Architecture? 

A.  Architecture  is  the  art  of  constructing  a  build- 
ing upon  correct  and  scientific  principles,  embodying 
strength,  utility,  and  beauty. 

Q.     What  was  the  origin  of  this  art? 

A.     The  origin  of  this  art  must  have  been  the  neces- 

9 


10  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

sity  found  by  our  race  in  all  parts  of  the  world  for 
protection  from  weather  and  from  the  attacks  of  ene- 
mies. 

Q.  What  was  probably  the  first  kind  of  habitation 
devised  or  adapted  by  man? 

A.  No  doubt  the  first  habitations  devised  by  man 
were  bowers  in  the  forests,  and  from  his  observance  of 
the  habits  of  inferior  animals,  caves  hollowed  out  of 
the  earth. 

Q.  Of  what  materials  is  it  most  probable  that  the 
earliest  buildings  were  constructed? 

A.  It  is  most  probable  that  the  earliest  materials 
used  were  rushes,  reeds,  and  the  branches  of  trees  tied 
together,  plastered  with  mud  and  thatched  with  leaves. 
The  ancient  Britons  constructed  most  of  their  dwellings 
of  wicker-work. 

Q.  What  reason  have  we  to  suppose  that  such  rude 
materials  were  ever  used  by  man  in  constructing  his 
dwellings  ? 

A.  Because  such  materials  were  generally  ready  at 
hand,  and  because  they  are  even  now  used  among  un- 
civilized tribes  of  New  Zealand  and  the  Sandwich  Isles. 

Q.  Of  what  shape  is  it  most  likely  that  the  earliest 
habitations  were  made,  and  why? 

A.  It  is  most  probable  that  they  were  made  of  a 
conical  shape,  because  such  structures  would  be  most 
easy  of  construction  and  removal,  would  afford  most 
protection  from  rain,  and  would  be  less  likely  to  be 
upset  by  the  wind. 

Q.  Are  there  any  countries  in  which  the  conical 
shape  is  still  in  use? 

A.  Yes ;  it  is  seen  in  the  tents  of  the  nomadic  tribes 
of  Arabia  and  Thibet,  the  huts  of  the  Kamtschatkans, 
and  wigwams  of  many  tribes  of  North  American  In- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


11 


dians,  some  of  which  are  constructed  of  bundles  of  long 
rushes,  the  thin  ends  of  which  are  tied  together  at  the 
top,  and  the  thick  ends  spread  out,  and  fastened  to  each 
other  at  the  bottom. 


j  < 


APQPMVCl* 
f  ILL«TT  ~ 


t 


Fig.    1. 


Q.  What  was  probably  the  next  form  that  suggested 
itself? 

A.  As  owing  to  the  increase  of  families  larger  space 
was  required,  this  was  no  doubt  obtained  by  means  of 


12  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

large  limbs  of  trees  fixed  in  the  ground  at  the  corners 
of  the  proposed  dwelling,  and  the  intervening  spaces 
idled  up  with  smaller  branches,  etc. 

Q.  To  what  result  did  the  experience  thus  gained 
lead? 

A.  In  the  first  place  to  the  practicability  of  still 
further  increasing  the  accommodation  by  the  addition 
of  another  room  above  the  room  on  the  ground,  while 
the  advantages  derived  from  the  conical  habitation  no 
doubt  suggested  the  idea  of  a  sloping  roof,  though  in 
eastern  countries,  and  in  others  where  there  is  little 
rain,  this  form  of  roof  has  never  been  generally 
adopted. 

ON    ANCIENT    AND    MEDIAEVAL    ARCHITECTURE. 

Q,     How  many  styles  of  architecture  are  there? 

A.  There  are  many  styles  of  architecture,  and  it 
would  be  impossible  in  this  work  to  describe  or  enumer- 
ate them  all,  as  every  country  on  the  face  of  the  globe 
with  any  approach  to  civilization  has  its  various  styles 
adapted  to  the  exigencies  of  its  climate,  the  tastes  and 
pursuits  of  its  inhabitants,  and  the  materials  for  build- 
ing which  they  have  at  their  command. 

Q.  What  distinction  can  you  make  between  Greek 
and  Roman  architecture? 

A.  The  architecture  of  the  Greeks  was  that  of  the 
column  and  entablature.  The  genuine  architecture  of 
the  Romans  was  that  of  the  arch,  though  when  they 
conquered  the  Greeks  they  grafted  Greek  forma  on  their 
own  style,  and  so  made  the  latter  exhibit  a  combina- 
tion of  both.     (See  Frontispiece.) 

Q.  What  is  the  principle  of  the  styles  known  as 
Gothic? 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


13 


A.  The  Gothic  styles  may  be  classified  in  two  broad 
divisions,  the  first  of  which,  comprising  the  style  gen- 
erally known  as  the  Early  English  or  Lancets  and  the 
Geometrical,  or  First  and  Second  Pointed  Styles,  ex- 
hibits throughout  the  principle  of  subordination  or 
unity  of  separately  existing  parts,  while  the  second  di- 
vision comprising  the  Curvilinear  Decorated,  or  Con- 
tinuous, and  the  Rectilinear,  or  Perpendicular  Styles, 
tended  more  and  more  to  blend  or  fuse  the  separate 


Fig.  2. 


parts.  The  Eomanesque  styles  w7hich  preceded  the 
Gothic  may  be  described  as  more  or  less  a  return  to  the 
genuine  arched  constructions  of  ancient  Rome. 

Q.  Wherein  does  the  great  difference  consist  in  the 
principle  of  construction  of  an  ancient  and  mediaeval 
edifice  ? 


14  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

A.  In  the  effect  produced  by  the  chief  lines  in  the 
design.  These,  in  Greek  architecture,  are  the  hori- 
zontal ;  in  the  mediaeval  styles  they  are  the  vertical. 

Q.  May  not  some  religious  symbolism  be  the  cause 
of  this  difference  in  principle? 

A.  To  some  extent  perhaps;  but  it  is  obvious  that 
when  the  pointed  superseded  the  round  arch,  all  the 
buildings  would  exhibit  more  and  more  the  vertical 
character,  which  results  from  the  combination  of  the 
several  parts  of  a  design  into  the  whole. 


GENERAL    DETAIL    OF    GRECIAN    AND    ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE, 

Q.  Give  a  general  idea  of  what  the  so-called  classic 
styles  include. 

A.  The  classic  styles  are  the  various  styles  founded 
and  practiced  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  Other 
styles  were  developed  from  these,  the  principal  of  which 
are  the  Romanesque  or  Byzantine,  the  Italian,  includ- 
ing the  Florentine,  modern,  Roman  and  Venetian,  and 
the  Renaissance. 

Q.  Name  some  of  the  distinguishing  features  of 
Greek  and  Roman  architecture. 

A.  The  column,  entablature  and  pediment,  together 
with  pilasters,  colonnades,  arcades  and  porticoes. 

Q.     What  is  a  column?     (See  Plate  2.) 

A.  A  column  is  a  perpendicular  erection  of  timber, 
stone  or  iron,  and  is  used  to  support  the  weight  of  su- 
perincumbent parts  of  the  building.  In  classic  archi- 
tecture the  column,  with  its  appurtenance,  forms  the 
principal  distinguishing  feature  of  the  different  orders. 

Q.     Describe  the  different  parts  of  a  column. 

A.     The  principal  parts  are  the  base,  the  shaft  and 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


15 


THE  FIROITUEA  AT  ATHENS- 


"C  .■  .7  £.'•'*= 


PLATE  2 


16  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

the  capital,  the  base  and  the  capital  being  subdivided 
into  different  parts,  each  of  which  had  its  name  and 
proportion.  Indeed,  the  column  is  so  important  a  part 
of  classic  architecture  that  the  exact  proportions  of 
each  part  are  settled  by  rule,  according  to  the  order 
used.     (Fig.  1.) 

Q.     What  is  an  abacus? 

A.  A  flat  slab  or  tablet  forming  the  upper  member 
of  a  capital.  In  the  Tuscan  and  Doric  orders  it  is 
square,  but  in  the  other  orders  it  is  hollowed  out  at  the 
sides  and  the  corners  cut  off. 

Q.     What  are  pilasters? 

A.  Pilasters  are  flat,  square  columns  attached  to  a 
wall,  behind  a  column  or  along  the  side  of  a  building, 
and  projecting  from  the  wall  about  a  fourth  or  a  sixth 
part  of  their  breadth.  The  Greeks  had  a  slightly  differ- 
ent design  for  the  capitals  of  pilasters  and  made  them 
the  same  width  at  top  as  at  bottom,  but  the  Romans 
gave  them  the  same  capitals  as  the  columns  and  made 
them  of  diminished  width  at  the  top,  similar  to  the 
columns. 

Q.     What  is  a  colonnade? 

A.  A  colonnade  is  a  range  of  columns,  and  the  name 
is  usually  prefixed  to  it,  signifying  the  number  of  col- 
umns it  contains,  and  founded  on  the  Greek  word  for 
that  number. 

Q.     Give  examples  of  these  different  names. 

A.  A  colonnade  with  four  columns  is  called  tetra- 
style;  with  six  columns,  hexastyle;  with  eight  columns, 
octastyle;  with  ten  columns,  decastyle,  and  so  on.  If 
the  space  between  the  columns  is  equal  to  one  and  a 
half  diameter  of  the  column  it  is  called  pyenostyle;  if 
to  two   diameters,   systyle;    if   to   two   and   a   quarter 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


17 


diameters,  ustyle;  if  to  three  diameters,  diastyle,  and 
if  to  four  diameters,  araeostyle. 

Q.  What  is  a  colonnade  called  when  in  front  of  a 
building  ? 

A.  It  is  then  called  a  portico  (Fig.  2),  and  when 
entirely  surrounding  the  building,  peristyle;  and  when 
the  columns  are  double  or  treble  of  depth,  polystyle. 
(Fig.  3.) 


Fig.   3. 


Q.     What  is  an  arcade? 

A.  An  arcade  is  a  series  of  arches  and  pillars,  either 
open  or  attached  to  a  wall,  and  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  pleasing  combinations  which  archi- 
tecture affords. 

Q.  What  are  the  spaces  between  the  arches  in  an 
arcade  called? 

A.  Spandrils,  which  in  mediaeval  architecture  are 
often  carved  with  a  diapered  pattern  or  decorated  with 
tracery  or  paneling. 

Q„     What  is  the  chief  use  of  an  arcade? 


18 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


A.  An  arcade,  when  outside  of  a  building,  is  gener- 
ally used  to  support  a  balcony  or  promenade  outside 
the  first  floor  windows.  Arcades  also  afford  shelter  from 
rain  and  heat;  the  only  real  objection  to  their  use  is 
that  they  obstruct  the  light  from  the  ground  floor.  They 
are  more  frequently  used  on  the  continent  of  Europe 
than  in  this  country. 

Q.     Describe  the  entablature. 

A.  The  entablature  comprises  the  whole  of  the  parts 
between  the  tops  of  the  columns  and  the  pediment,  and 
consists  of  the  architrave,  the  frieze  and  the  cornice. 
(See  Fig.  1.) 


>if"\jvyTry~ 


i^^w^ti  ~ 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.   5. 


Q.     What  is  the  architrave? 

A.  The  architrave  (or  principal  beam,  as  the  name 
implies)  is  the  lowest  division  of  the  entablature,  rest- 
ing immediately  on  the  tops  of  the  columns.  (See 
Fig.  4.) 

Q.     What  is  the  frieze? 

A.  The  frieze  (or  ornamental  part)  is  the  division 
between  the  architrave  and  the  cornice,  and  in  the  an- 
cient Grecian  examples  was  beautifully  sculptured.  In 
the  Tuscan  order  it  is  quite  plain,  as  that  order  is  desti- 
tute of  ornament.     In  the  modern  Italian  style  it  is 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


19 


sometimes  plain,  but  swelled  out,  or,  as  is  technically 
termed,  cushioned.      (See  Fig.  1.) 

Q.     How  is  the  frieze  ornamented  in  the  Doric  order  ? 

A.  By  triglyphs  and  metopes.  The  triglyphs  con- 
sist of  three  vertical  angular  channels  or  flutes  separated 
by  flat  spaces,  and  were  generally  placed  by  the  Ro- 
mans over  the  tops  of  the  columns.  Metopes  (Fig.  5) 
are  the  spaces  between  the  triglyphs,  and  originally 
were  left  open,  and  when  filled  in  were  quite  plain. 
In  Roman  buildings  they  were  usually  carved  with  a 
representation  of  an  ox  skull,  but  sometimes  shields 
and  other  devices  were  used.  The  Romans  considered  it 
essential  that  the  metope  should  be  an  exact  square. 


Fig.    6. 


Q.     What  is  the  cornice? 

A.  The  cornice  (Fig.  6)  is  the  horizontal  molding 
on  the  top  of  the  frieze,  and  the  division  between  the 
cornice  and  the  frieze  is  generally  marked  by  a  row  of 
small  square  locks,  called  dentals,  placed  at  regular 
intervals  of  about  two-thirds  or  three-fourths  of  their 
breadth.     The  cornice  is  varied  for  each  of  the  orders. 

Q.     What  is  the  pediment? 

A.  The  pediment  is  the  triangular  crowning  part 
of  a  portico,  and  corresponds  with  a  gable  in  Gothic 


20 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


architecture,  excepting  that  the  angle  is  much  more  ob- 
tuse than  that  of  a  gable.  The  angle  of  the  pediment 
corresponds  with  the  slope  of  the  roof.     (Fig.  3.) 


Fig.    7. 


Q.     To  what  other  uses  are  pediments  applied? 
A.     In  the  modern  Italian  styles  the  tops  of  door- 
ways and  windows  are  often  arranged  as  pediments, 


Fig.    8. 


which  are  supported  on  consoles,  trusses  or  brackets, 
and   in  later  examples  such  pediments  are  often  seg- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  21 

mental  or  circular  at  top,  instead  of  angular.      (Fig. 

7.) 

Q.    What  are  caryatides? 

A.  Caryatides  (Fig.  8)  are  colossal  emblematical 
figures,  made  to  do  duty  as  columns,  to  support  por- 
ticoes, etc.  There  is  no  doubt  that,  as  a  means  of  sup- 
port, columns  would  answer  the  purpose  much  better, 
but  they  were  often  used  by  the  Greeks  when  an  extra 
amount  of  decoration  was  required.  Male  figures  are 
called  Telamones  and  Atlantes,  or  Persians. 


ON   THE   ORDERS    OF    GRECIAN   AND   ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

Q.     What  do  you  mean  by  an  order? 

A.  An  order,  in  Grecian  and  Roman  architecture, 
consists  of  the  column,  base,  pedestal,  capital,  frieze, 
cornice,  and  moldings  belonging  to  it. 

Q.     How  many  orders  are  there  ? 

A.  Five.  There  are  three  primary  Greek  orders, 
viz. :  The  Doric,  the  Ionic,  and  the  Corinthian.  Two 
mose  were  added  by  the  Romans,  viz. :  The  Tuscan,  a 
modification  of  the  Doric,  and  the  Composite,  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  Corinthian. 

Q.  Describe  the  principal  features  of  the  Doric 
order. 

A.  The  Doric  order  was  the  oldest  and  simplest  of 
the  three  Greek  orders.  The  shafts  of  the  columns  are 
fluted,  and  the  flutings,  which  are  twenty  in  number, 
are  not  quite  a  semicircle  in  depth,  are  separated  only 
by  a  sharp  edge  and  not  by  a  fillet.  As  used  by  the 
Greeks,  this  order  was  without  base  or  pedestal. 

Q.  What  is  the  proportionate  height  of  a  Doric 
column? 


22 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


A.  The  height  of  a  Doric  column  is  usually  from 
seven  to  eight  times  its  diameter  at  the  bottom. 

Q.     How  is  the  Doric  column  surmounted? 

A.  The  Doric  column  is  surmounted  by  a  capital, 
consisting  of  a  perfectly  plain  square  abacus,  with  a 
single  line  of  molding  underneath  it,  technically  termed 
a  quirked  ovolo. 


Fig.   9.      DORIC  ORDER. 
A— Plan  of  the  Sofite  Corona.    B— Plan  of  the  Capital.    C— Plan  of  Base. 

Q.     Describe  the  Tuscan  order. 

A.  The  Tuscan  order,  which  was  founded  by  the 
Komans,  is  a  variety  of  the  Doric,  and  is  principally 
distinguished  by  its  massiveness  and  strength. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


23 


Q.  "What  is  the  proportionate  height  of  the  column, 
and  how  is  it  surmounted? 

A.  The  columns  are  seldom  higher  than  from  five- 
and-a-half  to  seven  times  their  diameter  at  the  bottom; 
they  have  a  simple  square  abacus  and  ovolo  for  a  capital, 
and  rest  on  a  massive  cubical  base,  with  a  torus  mold- 
ing.    The  shafts  are  never  fluted.     (Fig.  10.) 


OT^'.'-vJi".^MH 


Fig.    10.      TUSCAN  ORDER. 
A— Plan  of  Sofite  of  Cornice.    B— Plan  of  Capita!. 

Q.  In  what  position  is  this  order  placed  in  modern 
erections  of  more  than  one  story  and  where  several  or- 
ders are  used? 

A.  In  such  a  case  this  order  would  be  used  for  the 
basement  or  lower  stories,  which  would  give  an  air  of 
strength  and  solidity  to  the  whole. 


24 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Q.     Describe  the  Ionic  order. 

A.  This  order  is  the  second  of  the  orders  adopted 
by  the  Greeks  and  is  of  lighter  character  than  either 
the  Doric  or  the  Tuscan.  The  shafts  are  generally, 
though  not  always,  fluted,  with  a  fillet  between  the  flut- 
ings. 


Pig.    11.      IONIC  ORDER. 
A— Plan  of  Sofite  of  Cornice.    B— Plan  of  Capital. 


Q.  "What  is  the  proportionate  height  of  the  Ionic 
column  ? 

A.  The  total  height  of  the  column  ought  not  to  ex- 
ceed nine  times  its  diameter  at  the  base,  including  the 
pedestal,  if  there  is  one.    As  used  by  the  Grecians,  this 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


25 


order  was  without  a  pedestal,  but  the  Romans  added 
one. 

Q.     How  is  the  Ionic  column  surmounted? 

A.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  capital,  having  spiral- 
shaped  scrolls  at  each  side,  termed  volutes.  It  has  also  a 
molded  base  at  the  bottom,  in  height  about  half  the 
diameter  of  the  shaft.     (Fig.  11.) 


Fig.    12.       CORINTHIAN  ORDER. 
A— Plan  of  Sofite  of  Cornice.    B— Plan  of  Capital. 


Q.     Describe  the  Corinthian  order. 

A.  This  order  is  the  lightest  and  most  elegant  of  the 
three  orders  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks.  The  shaft  of 
the  column  is  fluted  and  the  cornices  and  mouldings 
are  richer  than  those  of  the  Ionic  or  Doric  orders. 


26 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Q.  Wthat  is  the  proportionate  height  of  the  Corin- 
thian column? 

A.  The  Corinthian  column  is  generally  about  nine- 
and-a-half  or  ten  times  its  diameter  in  height,  including 
the  molded  base.  It  generally,  though  not  invariably, 
rests  on  a  pedestal. 


Fig.   13.      COMPOSITE  ORDER. 
A— Plan  of  Sofite  of  Cornice.    B— Plan  of  Capital. 


Q.     How  is  the  Corinthian  column  surmounted? 

A.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  very  beautiful  capital, 
which  is  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  order.  It  is 
richly  carved  and  surrounded  by  three  rows  of  acanthus 
leaves.  The  abacus  at  the  top  is  hollowed  out  at  the 
sides,  and  has  the  corners  cut  off.     (Fig.  12.) 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  27 

Q.     Describe  the  Composite  order. 

A.  The  Composite  order,  used  by  the  Romans  is,  as 
its  name  implies,  composed  of  a  combination  of  other 
orders.  It  is  extremely  light  and  elegant,  partaking  of 
the  character  of  both  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders, 
and  usually  possessing  rather  more  ornament. 

Q.  What  is  the  proportionate  height  of  the  column, 
and  how  is  it  surmounted? 

A.  It  is  of  the  same  proportion  and  height  as  the 
Corinthian  and  has  a  capital  consisting  of  a  combina- 
tion of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian;  it  has  two  rows  of 
acanthus  leaves,  with  a  modification  of  the  Ionic  scrolls. 
The  abacus  is  hollowed  out  at  the  sides,  like  the  Co- 
rinthian.    (Fig.  13.) 


ON  PLANS,  FOUNDATIONS,  AND  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OP 
ARCHES. 

Q.  What  are  the  first  steps  generally  taken  by  an 
architect  in  the  erection  of  a  building? 

A.  The  preparation  of  plans  and  drawings  showing 
the  design  of  the  building  intended  to  be  erected. 

Q.  *How  many  sets  of  plans  are  necessary  to  convey 
an  accurate  idea  of  the  appearance  and  arrangement 
of  the  intended  building? 

A.  Four,  viz.,  the  ground  plans,  the  elevations,  and 
the  perspective,  and  sectional  plans. 

Q.     Of  what  do  the  ground  plans  consist  ? 

A.  The  ground  plan  is  a  representation  of  a  hor- 
izontal section  of  the  intended  building,  showing  the 
shape  of  the  ground  plot  whereon  it  is  to  be  erected, 
the  outlines  of  the  walls  and  the  distribution  and  ex- 
tent of  the  various  parts.    When  necessary  this  plan  is 


28  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

repeated  for  each  floor.  In  a  ground  plan  the  solid 
parts,  such  as  walls  and  piers,  etc.,  are  shaded  or  col- 
ored dark  to  distinguish  them  from  the  open  parts. 

Q.     What  is  meant  by  an  elevation? 

A.  The  elevations  are  correct  drawings  of  the  front 
and  sides  of  the  proposed  building,  showing  its  height 
and  proportions. 

Q.     What  is  the  perspective  drawing? 

A.  A  representation  of  the  intended  building  as 
viewed  from  a  given  point,  showing  the  general  effect  of  - 
its  appearance. 

Q.     What  are  the  sectional  drawings? 

A.  Drawings  representing  a  perpendicular  section 
of  the  building  cut  in  two  from  the  top  to  the  bottom, 
showing  the  internal  arrangement  of  floors,  staircases, 
chimneys,  etc. 

Q.  What  are  the  next  steps  to  be  taken  in  the  erec- 
tion of  a  building? 

A.  The  preparation  of  the  foundation,  which  must 
be  of  sufficient  firmness  to  insure  that  there  shall  be  no 
settlement  or  sinking  of  the  building  at  any  part. 

Q.  When  the  ground  is  not  naturally  firm  enough  to 
insure  the  stability  of  the  building,  how  is  this  reme- 
died? 

A.  Artificial  foundations  are  prepared  of  concrete. 
A  trench  is  dug  about  twice  the  width  of  the  thickness 
of  the  wall  at  the  foundation,  and  of  a  depth  in  pro- 
portion to  the  height  of  the  building  or  as  the  ground 
is  more  or  less  to  be  trusted,  and  is  filled  with  a  mix- 
ture of  broken  or  small  loose  stones,  sand,  and  Portland 
cement.  This  mixture,  which  is  dropped  into  the  trench 
from  some  height,  speedily  sets,  and  becomes  almost  as 
hard  as  solid  rock. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


29 


Q.     Are  the  walls  then  raised  on  this  foundation? 

A.  Yes,  and  they  should  be  tvviee  as  thick  for  the 
basement  as  for  the  rest  of  the  building-.  In  fact  the 
remainder  of  the  wall  is  sometimes  slightly  reduced  in 
thickness  for  each  succeeding-  story. 

Q.  When  openings  are  required  in  the  basement 
walls,  how  are  they  constructed  so  as  not  to  diminish 
their  strength? 


tf,    1 

VI    . 

'ST3T 

i 

r^c^r]) 

m\ 

MM 

Fig.     14.      SEMICIRCULAR  ARCH. 

A  A— Abutments.       S  S— Springers. 
V  V— Voussoirs.    1 1 — Imposts.   IN— 
Intrados.  K— Keystone.    P  P— Piers. 
EX— Extrados 


Fig.    15.     INVERTED  ARCHES 


A.  In  such  cases  inverted  arches  are  used,  and  the 
opening  above  is  covered  by  means  of  an  ordinary  arch 
or  iron  girder. 

Q.  Explain  the  principle  of  the  inverted  arch.  (Fig. 
15.) 

A.  Inverted  arches  are  used  to  prevent  the  weight 
of  the  superstructure  pressing  the  piers  into  the  earth 
at  any  point,  which  might  occur  owing  to  their  not  be- 
ing sufficiently  broad  in  surface  at  the  bottom.  The 
inverted  arches  distribute  the  weight  along  the  whole 
length  of  the  foundation  wall. 


30 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Q.     What  is  an  arch? 

A.  An  arch  is  a  curved  structure,  open  below  and 
closed  above,  and  when  properly  constructed  is  sup- 
ported by  the  pressure  of  its  component  parts. 

Q.  In  what  style  of  ancient  architecture  was  the 
arch  systematically  employed? 

A.  In  that  of  the  ancient  Romans,  by  whom  it  was 
used  both  for  engineering  and  ornamental  purposes, 
but  it  enters  most  largely  as  a  constructive  principle 
into  the  mediaeval  styles. 


Fig.   16.      BRIDGE  OF  ST.  ANGELO  OVER  THE  TIBER  AT  ROME. 


Q.     Was  not  the  arch  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks? 

A.  No.  They  seem  to  have  been  unaoquainted  with 
the  principle  of  the  arch,  all  their  doorways,  windows 
and  spaces  between  columns  being  on  the  principle  of 
the  architrave. 

Q.  How  do  you  account  for  the  absence  of  the  arch 
in  Greek  architecture  and  its  frequent  use  in  Roman? 

A.  The  reason  is  apparent  when  the  natural  features 
of  the  different  countries  are  considered.  In  Greece 
there  are  few  or  no  rivers,  in  fact,  they  can  hardly  be 
called  more  than  rivulets  or  streams,  and  the  means  of 
crossing  them  were  simple,  but  in  Italy  the  width  of 
the  rivers  necessitated  the  use  of  arched  bridges. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  31 

Q.     Name  some  of  the  uses  of  the  arch. 

A.  The  arch  is  most  frequently  used  where  there  is 
weight  to  be  supported  and  open  spaces  are  needed  be- 
low, for  instance,  in  bridges,  viaducts,  and  the  walls  of 
churches,  between  the  nave  and  aisles. 


Fig.  17.  ROUND  ARCH.     Fig.  18.  EQUILATERAL  ARCH. 


rSffiZ 


Fig.    19.     FLAT  ARCH. 

Q,  *  Give  an  example  of  the  use  of  the  arch  by  the 
ancient  Romans. 

A.  The  ancient  Romans  employed  the  arch  in  their 
viaducts  or  artificial  roads,  in  their  bridges,  and  in  their 
aqueducts,  and  for  ornamental  purposes,  chiefly  in  their 
triumphal  arches,  which  were  erected  to  honor  the  re- 
turn of  their  victorious  generals  and  to  celebrate  their 
triumph 

Q.    Describe  the  construction  of  an  arch. 

A.  An  arch  is  composed  of  voussoirs  or  wedge- 
shaped  pieces  of  stone  or  brick,  and  the  lines  formed  by 
the  interstices  between  the  voussoirs  all  point  to  the 


32  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

center  of  the  arch,  or  to  the  center  of  the  segments  of 
arcs  which  form  the  arch,  as  will  be  clearly  seen  from 
the  diagrams.  The  outer  line  is  called  the  extrados 
and  the  inner  line  the  intrados. 

Q.     What  are  the  abutments  of  an  arch? 

A.  The  abutments  are  the  solid  pieces  at  the  sides 
of  the  arch,  and  it  is  obvious  that  these  must  be  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  bear  the  thrust  of  the  arch. 

Q.     How  is  the  arch  measured? 

A.  The  distance  between  the  piers  is  called  the  span 
of  the  arch;  and  from  the  level  line  of  the  springing 
to  the  point  or  top  of  the  arch,  is  its  height. 


Fig.  20.     ROUND  ARCH  WITH  OROSSETTES. 


Q.  Are  there  not  other  modes  of  shaping  the  vous- 
soirs? 

A.  Yes;  but  they  are  only  variations  of  the  prin- 
ciple already  explained,  and  are  perhaps  resorted  to 
more  for  ornament  than  for  additional  strength;  the 
principal  is  the  same  in  each  case,  as  will  be  seen  by  the 
diagrams.  In  Fig.  20,  six  of  the  voussoirs  have  cros- 
settes  or  elbows,  overlapping  the  adjoining  stone,  which 
gave  them  a  horizontal  as  well  as  a  central  bearing;  in 
Fig.  21,  the  voussoirs  are  cut  to  fit  into  each  other,  or 
in  technical  phrase  joggled. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


33 


Q.  What  is  the  name  of  the  uppermost  or  middle 
voussoir  ? 

A.  The  keystone;  it  is  generally  larger  than  the 
other  voussoirs  and  it  is  so  named  because  it  forms,  as 
it  were,  a  key  to  bind  the  whole  arch  firmly  together. 

Q.     Is  the  arch  capable  of  supporting  much  weight  t 

A.  Yes,  if  the  arch  is  properly  constructed  it  is 
capable  of  supporting  an  equal,  if  not  greater  weight, 
than  a  solid  wall. 


Fig.    21.      FLAT  ARCH,  JOGGLED. 


Q.  Is  this  the  case  with  brick  work  without  any 
masonry  ? 

A.  Decidedly.  If  the  brick  are  gauged  to  the  proper 
shape,  and  the  arch  rightly  constructed,  with  a  double 
or  treble  course  of  bricks  to  form  the  arch,  it  will,  after 
the  wall  has  been  carried  up  a  little  way,  be  capable 
of  supporting  as  much  weight  as  if  there  were  no  open- 
in  s. 


34 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


GENERAL    DETAIL    OF    MEDIAEVAL    ARCHITECTURE. 

Section  I. — Ecclesiastical. 

Q.  Name  some  of  the  chief  features  peculiar  to  me- 
diaeval or  Gothic  architecture. 

A.  Arches,  pillars,  buttresses,  towers,  spires,  and 
pinnacles,  traceried  windows,  and  high  pitched  roofs. 


Fig.    22.      TARRAGONA  CATHEDRAL. 


Q.     How  many  different  kinds  of  arches  are  there, 
and  name  them? 
A.     Nine,  viz. : 

1.  Semi-circular,  used  in  the  Roman,  Saxon  and  Nor- 

man styles,  but  rarely  met  with  in  the  Gothic. 

2.  The  lancet  or  sharp-pointed,  belonging  to  the  Early 

English  period. 


EASY    LESSONS  IN   ARCHITECTURE  35 


3.  Equilateral.  J  belong 

4.  Ogee  vilir 


ing  to  the  Geometrical  and  Cur- 
inear  Decorated  periods. 


5.     Four    centered,    belonging    to    the    Perpendicular 
period. 


6.  Drop 

7.  Straight  and 

8.  Shouldered 


used     in     the     various     transitional 
periods. 


0.     Rampant,  used  in  either  style  for  staircases. 

There  are  some  variations  of  these  occasionally  met 
with,  for  instance,  the  horseshoe  in  the  Moorish  and 
the  stilted  arch  in  the  Norman,  the  three  and  five-cen- 
tered in  the  Perpendicular  period,  and  the  flat  arch; 
but  those  enumerated  above  are  the  principal.  (Fig.  23.) 

Q.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  Gothic  pillar 
and  a  classic  column  ? 

A.  The  Gothic  pillar  is  generally  clustered,  giving  an 
appearance  of  several  small  pillars  united  together,  and 
often  consists  of  a  large  central  shaft  with  four  smaller 
shafts  surrounding  it.  A  common  form  of  pillar  con- 
sists of  a  square  with  rectangular  recesses  at  each  of 
the  corners  a  circular  shaft  in  each  of  the  recesses,  and 
a  semi-circular  one  on  two  or  on  each  of  the  faces.  In 
the  decorated  period  a  lozenge-shaped  pillar  is  often 
met  with,  beautifully  carved. 

Q.  What  kind  of  capitals  and  bases  are  used  for  a 
Gothic  pillar? 

A.  The  bases  are  generally  molded,  the  capitals  also 
sometimes  consist '  of  a  series  of  moldings,  but  as  the 
stylo  was  developed,  and  as  more  decoration  was  used, 
they  are  richly  carved  with  foliage  and  flowers  copied 


36 


EASY  LESS*  INS   IX    ARCHITECTURE 


from  nature,  oak  leaves,  ivy  leaves,  and  the  leaves  of 
the  whitethorn,  hazel,  and  marsh-mallow,  being  often 
met  with. 


Fig.    23.      DIFFERENT  SHAPE  ARCHES. 


Q.     What  is  a  buttress? 

A.  A  buttress  is  a  mass  of  masonry  or  brickwork, 
built  on  the  outside  of  a  wall  to  <mTe  it  additional 
strength  to  resist  the  strain  of  the  roof,  etc. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


37 


Q.     Are  the  buttresses  alike  in  all  the  English  styles  1 
A.     They  are  on  the  same  principle,  but  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  period.     The  Early  English  buttresses  stand 


Fig.  24.     PLYING  BUTTRESS,    BATH  ABBEY. 

A— Buttress  with  Pinnacle.      B  -Flying  Buttress  supporting  Clerestory. 

C— Vaulted  Roof  of  Aisle.    D— Pier  dividing  Nave  from  Aisle.    E— Vaulted 

Roof  of  Nave. 

out  very  boldly  and  are  generally  broken  into  two  or 
three  stages,  and  reduced  in  thickness  at  each  stage.    In 


38  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

the  decorated  examples  they  are  also  divided  into  stages 
and  ornamented  with  niches  and  canopies  to  contain 
figures.  In  the  Perpendicular  period  they  are  but  slight- 
ly different,  excepting  that  they  are  more  often  orna- 
mented with  the  paneling  peculiar  to  that  style.  They 
are  often  surmounted  by  pinnacles. 

Q.     What  are  flying  buttresses? 

A.  Flying  buttresses  are  arched  buttresses,  used  when 
extra  strength  is  required  for  the  upper  part  of  the  wall 
of  the  nave,  etc.,  to  resist  the  outward  thrust  of  a  vaulted 
ceiling;  the  lower  part  of  the  flying  buttress  generally 
rests  upon  the  buttress  of  the  outside  wall  of  the  aisles. 
Such  buttresses  are  most  common  in  the  great  conti- 
nental churches;  but  some  beautiful  specimens  can  be 
seen  at  Westminster  Abbey,  Wells  Cathedral,  Bath 
Abbey  Church,  and  St.  Mary  Redcliffe,  Bristol.  (Fig. 
24.) 

Q.     What  is  a  tower? 

A.  A  tower  is  a  lofty,  square  structure,  of  several 
styles,  and  strengthened  by  buttresses.  The  object  of  a 
tower  is  to  give  dignity  to  a  building  and  also  to  con- 
tain a  peal  of  bells,  which  are  placed  in  an  upper  cham- 
ber of  the  tower  called  a  belfry.     (Fig.  25.) 

Q.  Mention  some  of  the  best  examples  of  towers  in 
England. 

A.  The  towers  of  Gloucester  Cathedral,  York  Min- 
ster, Beverley  Minster,  Canterbury  and  Lincoln  Cathe- 
drals, and  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  are,  perhaps,  the 
finest  amongst  the  many  noble  towers  in  Great  Britain. 

Q.  What  counties  in  England  are  celebrated  for  the 
fine  towers  to  their  parish  churches? 

A.  Somersetshire,  Lincolnshire  and  Norfolk,  which 
possess  a  very  large  number  of  magnificent  towers,  any 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


39 


one  of  which  might  well  be  the  pride  of  a  whole  county. 

Q.     What  is  a  spire  ? 

A.     A  spire  is  a  lofty  structure  built  on  the  top  of  a 
low  tower,  and  tapering  gradually  to  point  at  the  top. 

(Fig.  25.) 


Heckinpton. 
SPIRE. 


Fig.    25. 


AH  Saints'  Derby. 
TOWER. 


Q.     Of  what  shape  is  the  tapering  part? 

A.  The  tapering  part  is  generally  octagonal,  and 
the  angles  are  often  crocketecl,  i.  e.,  ornamented  with 
carved  figures  like  leaves  curling  over.    There  are  often 


40 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


little  windows  or  niches,  and  canopies  made  at  intervals. 
The  name  of  steeple  is  often  applied  to  either  a  tower 
or  a  spire,  or  to  the  combination  of  both. 


Fig.    26. 
GEOMETRICAL  FIGURES  USED  IN  TRACERY  AND  PANELING. 


Q.     Mention  some  of  the  finest  spires  in  England. 
A.     The  spires  of  Salisbury  and  Norwich  Cathedrals, 
and  St.  Michael's  Church,  Coventry. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN   AKC1I1TECTUKE 


41 


Q.     What  are  pinnacles? 

A.  Pinnacles  are  small  spires  used  to  ornament  the 
tops  of  buttresses,  gables,  etc. 

Q.     What  are  turrets  ? 

A.  Turrets  are  little  towers  which  are  used  to  orna- 
ment different  parts  of  Gothic  buildings ;  frequently  the 
high  towers  of  churches  and  cathedrals  are  finished  off 
by  turrets  or  pinnacles  at  the  corners. 


Fig.   27. 


Q.  Are  not  towers  and  spires  used  in  classic  build- 
ing? 

A.  They  were  not  used  in  any  ancient  examples,  but 
modern  buildings  often  have  steeples  and  the  idea  is 
evidently  taken  from  the  Gothic,  though  not  with  very 
great  success.  The  best  specimens  are  those  by  Sir 
Christopher  Wren,  St.  Mary-le-Bow,  Cheapside^  Christ 
Church,  Newgate  Street,  and  St.  Michael-le-Querne,  Fo^ 
ter  Lane,  are,  perhaps,  the  three  best  examples  that  can 
be  mentioned,  though  there  are  many  copied  from  them. 

Q.     What  is  tracery? 


42 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


A.  Tracery  is  the  ornamental  stonework  in  the  head 
of  windows  forming  geometrical  and  flowing  patterns, 
or  caused  by  the  intersection  and  combination  of  mull- 
ions.     (Figs.  26,  27,  28  and  29.) 

Q.     What  are  mullions? 

A.  Mullions  are  the  upright  divisions  of  the  stone- 
work, dividing  the  windows  into  compartments  or  lights. 
(Figs.  26  and  27.) 

Q.     What  was  the  origin  of  mullions  and  tracery? 

A.  No  doubt  the  first  idea  of  mullions  and  tracery 
was  obtained  by  the  combination  of  two  or  more  narrow 
windows  of  the  Early  English  period. 


S.  Ouen.    Rouen. 


Fig.  28. 


York. 


Q.     How  many  kinds  of  tracery  are  there? 

A.     Two;  plate  tracery  and  bar  tracery. 

Q.     What  is  plate  tracery? 

A.  Plate  tracery  is  the  very  earliest  form  of  tracery 
and  belongs  to  the  later  periods  of  the  First  Pointed  or 
Early  English  style.  It  consists  simply  .of  apertures 
cut  in  the  flat  surface  of  the  stonework  between  the 
tops  of  the  narrow  windows. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


43 


Q.     Is  this,  properly  speaking,  tracery? 

A.  No;  the  complete  idea  of  Gothic  tracery  requires 
not  only  the  lights  and  figure  (or  figures)  above  them 
shall  be  combined  by  label  and  arch,  with  mullions  in- 
stead of  portions  of  wall,  but  that  the  spandrils  in  the 
window-head  shall  be  pierced. 


Tattershall  Castle.  S.  George's  Chapel. 

PERPENDICULAR  WINDOWS  AND  DOORWAYS. 


Aylsham. 


Norwich. 


Fig.    29. 


Q.     What  is  bar  tracery? 

A.  Bar  tracery  is  the  most  elaborate  form  of  this 
kind  of  ornament  and  belongs  chiefly  to  the  Geometrical 
and  Curvilinear  Decorated  periods.  Its  name  is  derived 
from  the  supposed  resemblance  to  bars  of  iron  twisted 
and  bent  to  form  geometrical  and  floriated  patterns. 


44  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

Many  most  beautiful  examples  are  to  be  found  in  York 
Minster. 

<.,).     Is  the  use  of  tracery  confined  to  windows? 

A.  No;  it  is  also  used  in  paneling  and  in  open  screen 
work  of  wood  or  stone. 

Q.     What  are  transoms? 

A.  Transoms  are  the  horizontal  divisions  across  the 
mullions  and  are  used  in  the  windows  of  the  continuous 
or  Perpendicular  period  and  are  occasionally  of  great 
size;  indeed,  the  tracery  of  windows  of  this  period  very 
often  partakes  more  of  the  character  of  open  paneling, 
filled  in  with  glass  than  is  consistent  with  a  true  Gothic 
effect,  and  this  is  one  of  the  later  features  of  the  period 
marking  the  decline  of  the  style. 


GENERAL  DETAIL   OF   MEDIAEVAL  ARCHITECTURE. 

Section  I. — Ecclesiastical. 

Q.  What  other  feature  exists  in  the  windows,  panel- 
ing and  screens  of  Gothic  architecture? 

A.  The  little  arches  formed  by  the  mullions  are 
often  cusped,  that  is,  there  are  projections  from  the 
curve  of  the  arch,  as  though  another  arch  were  going  to 
spring  out.  These  cusps  in  the  Perpendicular  style  are 
often  decorated  by  a  flower  at  the  point.  Two  cusps  in 
the  arch  form  a  trefoil,  tftree  a  quatrefoil,  and  so  on. 

Q.  What  other  shapes  do  windows  assume  in  Gothic 
architecture  ? 

A.     The  wheel  or  rose,  and  the  squarehead. 

Q.     Describe  these. 

A.  The  wheel  or  rose  window  is  circular  and  is  filled 
with  tracery  like  shafts,  radiating  from  the  center,  re- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  45 

sembling  the  spokes  of  a  wheel,  as  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
or  in  waving  lines,  as  in  the  Flamboyant  buildings  of 
France  (Fig.  28).  The  square-topped  window  used 
only  in  the  Perpendicular  style  is  divided  by  mullions 
and  transoms.     (Fig.  29.) 

Q.     What  is  meant  by  the  hood  molding  ? 

A.  The  hood  molding,  also  called  the  dripstone,  is  a 
projecting  molding  over  the  tops  of  traceried  windows 
and  doorways.  It  seldom  extends  lower  than  the  spring 
of  the  arch,  and  is  used  for  the  double  purpose  of  orna- 
ment and  to  protect  the  tracery  from  the  rain.  Per- 
pendicular windows  and  doorways  are  almost  invariably 
hooded. 


Fig.    30.  Fig.  31. 

Q.     Describe  the  construction  of  a  roof. 

A.  The  principal  parts  are  the  rafters,  trusses,  posts, 
purlins;  and  braces.  Their  forms  and  uses  are  shown 
in  the  diagrams.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  object  of 
the  tie-beam  is  to  prevent  the  sloping  rafters  from 
spreading  out.  The  king-post  stands  on  the  tie-beam 
and  reaches  up  to  the  ridge-piece,  which  it  supports,  and 
the  braces  or  struts  reach  from  the  foot  of  the  king-post 
to  the  middle  of  the  sloping  rafters,  preventing  them 
from  bending  in  or  bulging  out,  and  the  purlins  are 
horizontal  rafters,  running  along  the  sloping  rafters  at 
the  top  of  the  braces.  Sometimes  there  are  two  posts  on 
the  tie-beam,  in  which  case  it  is  called  a  queen-post  roof. 
(See  Figs.  30  and  31.) 


46  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

Q.     What  is  meant  by  a  high-pitched  roof? 

A.  Gothic  roofs  of  the  Early  English  and  Decorated 
periods  are  often  of  a  high  pitch,  i.  e.,  the  sides  and 
base  of  the  roof  form  an  equilateral  triangle,  the  insides 
being  open  so  that  the  woodwork  is  visible.  In  the  Per- 
pendicular period  the  roofs  were  more  depressed,  that  is, 
the  angle  at  the  top  was  more  obtuse,  which  marks  an- 
other sign  in  the  decline  of  the  true  Gothic  principle. 
(Fig.  32.) 

Q.     What  material  was  used  for  covering  the  roof? 

A.  Shingles  or  thin  slabs  of  oak,  which,  however, 
gave  way  to  tiles,  and  ultimately  to  lead,  as  being  more 
durable. 

Q.  What  were  the  means  used  for  conducting  the 
water  from  the  roof? 

A.  The  water  was  collected  by  a  gutter  and  dis- 
charged from  the  roof  by  spouts  called  gargoyles,  which 
were  frequently  carved  into  a  representation  of  a  gro- 
tesque figure,  which  threw  the  water  from  its  mouth. 

Q.     What  are  corbels? 

A.  Corbels  are  projecting  pieces  of  timber  or  stone 
set  in  a  wall  for  an  arch  to  spring  from,  or  to  support 
the  beam. 

Q.     What  is  a  gable? 

A.  A  gable  is  the  upper  part  of  the  end  wall  of  a 
building  above  the  eaves  and  conforming  to  the  angle 
of  the  roof. 

Q.     What  is  a  vaulted  roof  ? 

A.  A  vaulted  roof,  or  more  properly  a  vaulted  ceil- 
ing, as  there  is  always  an  additional  outside  roof  to 
cover  it,  is  built  on  the  principle  of  the  arch  and  is 
often  richly  groined  and  ornamented  with  bosses  and 
pendants.     In  some  mediaeval  buildings,  probably  owing 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  47 

to  the  walls  not  being  of  sufficient  strength  to  bear  the 
weight  of  stone,  blocks  of  wood  have  been  used  instead 
and  made  to  look  like  stone.     (Fig.  32.) 

Q.     What  is  a  groined  ceiling? 

A.  Most  vaulted  ceilings  are  groined,  the  groins  being 
the  angles  formed  by  the  intersection  of  the  arches.  In 
many  cases  they  are  rendered  more  prominent  by  being 
ribbed  or  molded,  a  boss  or  ornament  being  generally 
placed  where  all  the  ribs  meet  at  the  top. 


Fig.  32.    VAULTED  CEILING.  Fig.   33.    PENDANT. 

Q.  What  other  ways  are  there  of  ornamenting  the 
ceiling"? 

A.  In  the  Perpendicular  style  there  is  a  kind  of 
tracery  leading  from  the  pillars  and  spreading  all  over 
the  vaulted  ceiling.  This  is  called  fan  tracery.  There 
are  also  in  this  style  some  beautiful  examples  of  flat 
ceilings  divided  into  panels,  the  divisions  of  which  are 
richly  molded  and  ornamented  with  bosses. 

Q.     What  is  a  pendant? 

A.  A  pendant  is  a  hanging  ornament,  sometimes  of 
large  size  and  often  covered  with  molding  or  sculpture. 
It  is  placed  at  the  conjunction  of  the  fan  tracery,  or  of 
the  ribs  at  the  top  of  the  vaulted  roof.     The  way  in 


48  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

which  it  is  supported  is  shown  in  the  diagram.  Pend- 
ants are  principally  used  in  the  Perpendicular  style,  and 
there  are  some  beautiful  specimens  in  Henry  VII 's 
chapels.     (Fig.  33.) 

Q.     How  is  a  Gothic  church  divided? 

A.  Into  nave  and  aisles,  choir  and  chancel.  The 
nave  and  aisles  are  for  the  congregation,  the  choir  for 
the  singers  and  the  chancel  for  the  celebration  of  Holy 
Communion.  This  arrangement  is  that  which  is  gener- 
ally adopted  in  cathedrals  and  minsters,  but  it  is  not 
universal,  as  many  small  parish  churches  have  no  aisle 
or  choir,  but  simply  consist  of  nave  and  chancel. 

Q.     "What  is  a  lady  chapel? 

A.  A  small  chapel  attached  to  collegiate  and  other 
large  churches,  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  often 
forming  a  projection  from  the  main  building,  generally 
to  the  eastward  of  the  chancel. 

Q.     Are  these  divisions  all  under  the  same  roof? 

A.  No.  The  nave  is  divided  from  the  aisles  by 
arches  and  pillars  and  has  a  roof  to  itself;  the  roofs  of 
the  aisles  are  not  nearly  so  high  as  the  nave,  and  the 
roof  of  the  choir  and  chancel  is  generally  either  higher 
or  lower  than  the  nave.     (Fig.  34.) 

Q.     What  are  clerestory  windows? 

A.  The  clerestory,  or  clear-story,  is  the  name  of  a 
series  of  windows  which  are  often  seen  over  the  arches 
which  divide  the  nave  from  the  aisles,  and  are  so  called 
because  they  form  a  clear  story  above  the  other  parts  of 
the  building  and  to  distinguish  it  from  the  triforium, 
which  was  called  the  blind  story.  They  are  useful  to  in- 
crease the  light  in  the  nave.     (Fig.  34.) 

Q.     What  is  the  triforium? 

A.  The  triforium,  sometimes  called  the  blind  story, 
is  a  gallery  with  small  open  arches  in  front  built  over  the 


EASY  LESSONS  !X  ARCHITECTURE 


49 


aisles,  sometimes  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  often 
between  the  vaulted  ceiling  of  the  aisles  and  the  out- 
side roofs.     (Fig.  34.) 

Q.     What  is  a  porch? 

A.  A  porch  is  a  roofed  structure  outside  the  princi- 
pal doorways,  and  most  usually  in  height  only  just 
covers  the  doorway,  though  in  some  examples  there  is 
a  room  over  them.  In  the  debased  or  Elizabethan  style, 
porches  are  sometimes  carried  up  as  high  as  the  rest 
of  the  building  and  with  uniform  stories. 


Fig.    34. 


Q.     What  is  a  canopy? 

A.  A  canopy  is  projecting  ornamented  covering  over 
doors,  windows  and  niches  for  receiving  statues,  etc. 
They  are  used  in  all  the  Gothic  styles,  though  chiefly  in 
the  Perpendicular. 

Q.  What  is  meant  by  tessellated  pavement,  and  by 
whom  was  it  originally  used? 

A.  Tessellated  pavement  is  composed  of  pieces  of 
different  colored  marble  or  tiles  arranged  to  form  geo- 
metrical patterns.     The  Romans  often  used  baked  tiles, 


50  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

also,  which  were  colored  and  shaped  to  form  patterns. 
Many  remains  of  those  have  been  exhumed  recently, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  a  very  fine  specimen 
recently  found  at  Canterbury,  and  now  deposited  in 
Canterbury  Museum.  Tessellated  pavements  were  large- 
ly used  by  mediaeval  architects. 

Q.  Did  the  ancient  and  mediaeval  architects  employ 
the  aid  of  color  in  their  buildings? 

A.  Yes:  color  was  largely  employed  by  both  in  the 
way  of  coloring  the  walls  by  means  of  frescoes,  etc.,  and 
in  drapery  as  well  as  in  painted  windows.  Much  of  the 
bareness  and  coldness  noticed  in  some  mediaeval  remains 
is  no  doubt  caused  by  the  absence  of  drapery  and  tapes- 
try hangings,  intended  to  be  used  by  the  architect,  but 
which  have  not  been  replaced. 

Q.  What  great  lesson  may  be  learnt  from  a  survey 
of  the  remains  of  both  ancient  and  mediaeval  buildings 
besides  their  style  and  form  of  architecture? 

A.  That  ancient  architects  worked  throughout  on 
principle,  employing  in  their  construction  only  such 
forms  as  were  necessary.  We  seldom  find  in  the  remains 
of  their  buildings  anything  made  of  plaster  while  pur- 
porting to  be  of  stone,  or  any  inscriptions  painted  while 
purporting  to  be  incised.  Nearly  everything  is  what 
it  seems  to  be.  If  Greeks  and  Romans  had  erected  their 
buildings  as  many  large  modern  buildings  are  erected, 
we  should  have  but  few  models  from  which  to  take 
pattern.  Evidently  their  buildings  were  meant  to  last, 
and  each  stone  was  laid  with  the  intention  that  their 
children  in  a  remote  age  might  find  it  as  perfect  as  they 
left  it.  Their  motto  was  not  "this  is  the  cheapest  and 
easiest  way  to  do  it,  and  at  any  rate  it  will  last  our 
time.''     The  remains  of  our  mediaeval  buildings,  many 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  51 

of  which  were  brought  to  their  present  state  by  sieges 
and  fires,  and  battering  of  war  engines  and  yet,  the 
masonry,  in  many  instances  remains  practically  unin- 
jured. From  this  we  can  form  some  conception  of  what 
the  whole  must  have  been  when  just  completed  by  those 
master  builders. 

ON   MILITARY  AND  DOMESTIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

[Although  many  of  the  features  just  described  are 
used  both  in  ecclesiastical  and  military  or  domestic 
architecture,  the  following  are  used  only  in  the  latter 
and  it  is  therefore  deemed  best  to  describe  them  in  a 
separate  section.] 

Q.  What  was  the  character  of  the  domestic  archi- 
tecture of  the  ancient  Greeks  ? 

A.  Very  poor;  their  entire  attention  was  paid  to 
their  temples. 

Q.     Was  this  the  case  with  the  ancient  Romans? 

A.  No.  The  ancient  Romans  paid  greater  attention 
to  civil  and  domestic  architecture,  as  the  remains  of  their 
triumphal  arches,  amphitheatres,  baths  and  houses 
testify. 

Q.    .What  was  the  Basilica  of  the  ancient  Romans  ? 

A.  "Basilica  was  the  name  given  to  the  public  Hall  of 
Justice ;  it  generally  contained  an  altar  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  oaths,  and  a  raised  platform  for  the  judges. 
Many  of  these  basilicas  were  afterward  converted  into 
Christian  churches. 

Q.  What  buildings  next  to  the  ecclesiastical  struct- 
ures received  the  greatest  amount  of  attention  from  the 
mediaeval  architects? 

A.     The  castles  of  the  barons  and  nobility. 

Q.    What  is  a  castle? 

A.  An  edifice  of  great  strength  and  solidity,  being  a 
fortress  and  palace  combined.    They  were  used  as  dwell- 


52  EASY   LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

ing  places  by  the  nobility,  and  were  strongly  fortified 
so  as  to  be  able  to  withstand  the  attack  of  an  invading 
force. 

Q.  What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  a  Gothic 
castle  ? 

A.  Convenience  was  evidently  sacrificed  for  secur- 
ity, the  apartments  were  often  gloomy,  bed-chambers 
few  and  small,  passages  narrow  and  intricate,  and  the 
stairs  steep  and  dark. 

Q.     What  was  the  general  plan  of  defence? 

A.  They  were  surrounded  in  most  instances  by  a 
moat  or  deep  ditch,  which  was  generally  kept  filled  with 
water  so  as  to  render  it  difficult  for  the  attacking  party 
to  get  near  enough  to  make  a  breach  in  the  walls. 

Q.  What  were  the  means  of  exit  and  entrance  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  castle? 

A.  A  drawbridge  or  platform  which  could  be  lowered 
or  raised  when  necessary. 

Q.  Supposing  the  drawbridge  was  inadvertently 
left  down,  what  was  the  defence  of  the  doorway? 

A.  A  portcullis,  which  was  a  kind  of  crossbarred 
gate  of  great  strength,  sliding  in  grooves,  which  was 
kept  lowered  in  front  of  the  principal  entrance. 

Q.     Describe  the  principal  entrance  to  a  castle. 

A.  The  principal  entrance  was  often  very  imposing, 
consisting  of  a  long  passage  with  a  vaulted  ceiling  and 
portcullis  at  either  end,  and  capable  of  resisting  a  pro- 
longed attack. 

Q.     What  was  the  next  defence  to  the  castle? 

A.  The  barbican,  which  was  a  kind  of  tower  often 
separated  from  the  castle  and  strongly  fortified  to 
guard  the  drawbridge  and  principal  entrance. 

Q.     What  was  the  principal  tower  called? 

A.     The  keep. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  53 

Q.     What  is  a  parapet? 

A.  A  low  wall  to  afford  protection  to  soldiers  fight- 
ing on  the  ramparts  of  castles  and  the  roofs  of  other 
buildings. 

Q.     What  is  an  alur  ? 

A.  A  hidden  passage  behind  a  parapet  for  the  pur- 
pose of  watching  unseen  the  operations  of  besiegers. 

Q.     What  are  battlements? 

A.  Notched  or  indented  parapets.  The  solid  parts 
are  called  merlons,  and  the  openings  embrasures,  or  cre- 
nelles, through  which  archers  could  shoot.  Battlements 
are  sometimes  employed  for  ornaments  in  ecclesiastical 
structures. 

Q.     What  is  a  bartizan? 

A.  A  small  overhanging  turret  projecting  from  the 
corners  of  a  tower  or  from  the  parapet.  They  are  more 
commonly  used  on  the  Continent  than  in  England. 

Q.  What  was  the  chief  apartment  in  a  medigeval 
castle  ? 

A.  The  hall,  where  all  meals  were  had,  and  which 
was  often  strewed  with  rushes  for  the  servants  to  sleep 
on  at  night. 

Q.  *What  is  a  bay  or  oriel  window? 

A.  Bay  windows  were  chiefly  used  in  the  Perpendic- 
ular style,  and  formed  a  bay  or  recess  at  the  upper  end 
of  the  hall.  These  recesses  were  either  rectangular  or 
polygonal,  and  when  used  for  an  upper  story  were  sup- 
ported on  the  outside  by  corbels,  or  a  projecting  series 
of  mouldings.  Bay  windows  or  bow  windows  of  semi- 
circular shape  are  often  used  in  the  modern  Italian 
styles. 

Q.  What  was  the  next  important  apartment  in  the 
castle  ? 

A.     The  kitchen,  which  on  account  of  the  number  of 


54  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

retainers  and  frequent  visitors  at  the  castle  of  a  baron, 
formed  a  most  important  feature.  It  was  sometimes  a 
separate  building-,  but  was  most  usually  in  direct  com- 
munication with  the  hall. 

Q.     What  was  the  postern  gate? 

A.  A  private  or  concealed  gate  in  a  castle  or  mon- 
astery by  Avhich  means  of  exit  was  obtained  or  message 
sent  for  aid  during  a  siege. 

Q.     What  are  cloisters? 

A.  A  covered  arcade  on  three  sides  of  a  quadrangu- 
lar space  in  front  of  a  church  or  monastery;  they  were 
used  as  places  of  study  by  the  monks,  and  the  space  en- 
closed within  them  was  used  for  recreation. 

Q.     What  were  the  lavatories? 

A.  Places  for  washing  in  monastic  buildings,  some- 
times consisting  of  a  fountain  or  reservoir  of  water  and 
a  stone  trough  in  the  cloisters. 

Q.     What  is  a  lantern  tower? 

A.  A  small  turret  usually  erected  on  the  roof  of  a 
hall,  or  at  the  junction  of  a  transept ;  they  were  open  to 
view  from  the  ground  nearly  the  whole  of  their  height. 
The  name  was  also  applied  to  an  open  erection  at  the 
tops  of  towers,  as  at  Boston  Church,  Lincolnshire,  Eng- 
land. 

Q.     What  are  dormer  windows? 

A.  They  are  small  windows  built  out  of  a  high- 
pitched  roof;  they  are  very  picturesque  in  appearance, 
and  are  so  called  because  they  were  originally  used  for 
dormitories,  or  sleeping-chambers. 

Q.     What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "batter"? 

A.  Walls  leaning  inward  are  said  to  batter,  that  is, 
the  top  part  of  the  building  would  be  of  less  circum- 
ference than  the  base.  Walls  of  wharves,  embankments 
and  fortifications  generally  batter. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


55 


ON   THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF    MEDIAEVAL   ARCHITECTURE. 

Q.     What  is  meant  by  the  term  Gothic? 
A.     The  name   of   Gothic  was  given  to  the  various 
Mediaeval  styles  at  a  period  in   tb*1    sixteenth    century 


Fig.    35.      Early  English  Facade. 


Fig.   36. 


when  ;a  great  classic  revival  was  going  on,  and  every- 
thing not  classic  was  considered  barbarian  or  Gothic. 
The  term  was  thus  originally  intended  as  one  of  stig- 
ma, and  although  it  conveys  a  false  idea  of  the  character 
of  the  Mediaeval  styles,  it  has  been  long  used  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  Grecian  and  Roman. 

Q.  What  change  was  produced  by  the  general  adop- 
tion of  the  pointed  arch? 

A.  The  true  principle  of  Gothic  architecture  was 
firmly  established. 

Q.  What  is  the  true  principle  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture? 


56 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


A.  The  vertical,  division,  relation,  and  subordination 
of  the  different  parts,  distinct  and  yet  a  unity  with 
each   other,   and   while   this   principle  was   adhered  to, 


Fig. 


YORK, 


Equilateral  or  Decorated  Arch  and 
Pillars. 


Fig. 


ST.  GEORGE'S  CHAPEL. 


Tudor  or  Perpendicular  Arch  and 
Pillars. 


Gothic   architecture  may  be  said  to  have  retained  its 
vitality. 

Q.     Describe  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  earlier 
stage  of  Gothic  architecture. 


mm 


Fig.    39. 


Fig.  40. 


A'.  The  chief  features  of  the  earliest  periods  are 
high-pitched  roofs,  sharp-pointed  arches,  and  narrow 
windows,  and  a  more  severe  treatment  generally  than  is 
apparent  in  succeeding  styles.     Lincoln  and  Salisbury 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


57 


Cathedrals  and  Westminster  Abbey  are  among  the  most 
beautiful  examples  of  this  period  which  has  been  desig- 
nated as  the  Early  English,  First  Pointed,  or  Lancet,  on 
account  of  the  sharp-pointed  arches.  (Figs.  35,  36,  37, 
38.) 


A 


Fig.    41. 


Fig.   4: 


Fig.    43. 


Q.  What  further  progress  was  made  in  Gothic  archi- 
tecture at  this  period,  and  to  what  did  it  give  rise? 

A.  The  grouping  together  of  two  or  more  windows 
and  inclosing  them  with  an  arch.     The  spaces  between 


Fig.    44. 


Fig.    45. 


Fig.     46. 


the  tops  of  the  windows  were  then  pierced,  which  gave 
rise  to  the  adoption  of  plate  tracery,  which  at  first  con- 
sisted only  of  the  openings  made  in  the  walls  between 


58  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

the  tops  of  the  windows.  The  upright  pieces  of  wall 
between  the  windows  became  narrower  and  ultimately 
gave  way  to  mullions,  and  the  two  or  more  windows 
grouped  together  became  one  window,  consisting  of  two 
or  more  lights. 

Q.  What  were  the  next  changes  introduced  into 
Gothic  architecture? 

A.  The  principal  changes  next  made  were  such  as 
further  developed  the  principle  of  subordination,  viz., 
the  widening  of  the  arches  and  the  general  adoption  of 
the  equilateral  form;  the  use  of  bar  tracery  instead 


Fig.    47.  Fig.    48.  Fig.   49.  Fig.  50. 


of  plate  tracery,  the  patterns  being  worked  in  geo- 
metrical forms;  the  clustering  of  shafts  and  the  ex- 
quisite moldings  around  the  arches,  doors  and  windows. 
(Fig.  26.) 

Q.  What  name  has  been  given  to  the  style  now 
adopted? 

A.  This  style  has  been  called  the  Geometrical  Dec- 
orated, or  Second  Pointed,  and  during  this  period  Goth- 
ic architecture  may  be  considered  to  be  in  its  prime,  for 
whatever  may  be  the  beauty  of  succeeding  styles — and 
the  question  of  beauty  is  quite  distinct  from  that  of 
principle — the  departure  from  the  true  Gothic  principle 
becomes  more  and  more  apparent. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


59 


Q.  Did  these  changes  take  place  suddenly  or  rapid- 
ly? 

A.  No.  The  change  was  very  gradual,  and  many 
examples  exist  which  partake  of  the  character  of  both 


Fig.   51. 


Fig.   52. 


Fig.  53. 


Fig.   54. 


the  Lancet  and  Geometrical  Decorated  styles.  Many 
buildings  were  erected  exhibiting  some  of  the  new 
features  of  the  former  period  after  they  had  passed  out 
of  general  use.     These  are  called  transitional. 


Fig.    55. 


Fig.   5(5. 


Q.     Is  not  this  mixture  of  styles  a  great  hindrance  to 
the  assignment  of  exact  dates  to  mediaeval  buildings? 
A.     Yes;  but  the   development   of  the   art   rendered 


60 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


necessary  a  period  of  transition  between  each  stage,  and 
we  are  indebted  to  such  periods  for  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  designs. 

Q.  Give  some  examples  of  the  Geometrical  Decorated 
style. 

A.  Parts  of  Ely,  Exeter,  Norwich,  York  and  Litch- 
field Cathedrals  contain  exquisite  specimens  of  the  work- 
manship of  this  period. 

Q.     What  was  the  next  change  in  principle? 

A.  The  next  change  was  one  which  ultimately  re- 
sulted in  the  downfall  of  Gothic  architecture;  and  this 


Fig.    57. 


was  the  introduction  into  the  tracery  of  windows  of 
curved  forms,  blending  one  into  the  other,  instead  of 
the  pure  geometrical  forms  which  preserved  a  separate 
character,  while  existing  in  perfect  unity  (Fig.  60). 
This  style,  which  commences  the  second  division  of 
Gothic  architecture,  is  called  the  Curvilinear  or  Flow- 
ing Decorated,  and  corresponds '  with  the  Flamboyant 
style  of  France. 

Q.     Describe  the  Flamboyant  style  of  architecture. 

A.  The  Flamboyant  style  was  contemporary  in 
France  with  the  Curvilinear  and  Continuous  styles  of 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


til 


Great  Britain.  This  name  was  given  to  it  because  of  the 
resemblance  of  its  tracery  to  the  waving  of  flames.  The 
Church  of  St.  Ouen,  Rouen,  and  the  Cathedral  of  Ilar- 
fleur  in  Normandy,  contain  beautiful  specimens  of  this 
style. 

Q.  How  did  this  change  lead  to  the  downfall  of 
Gothic  architecture  ? 

A.  Because  it  involved  a  departure  from  the  true 
Gothic  principle,  the  unity  of  separately  existing  parts, 
and  allowed  to  the  flowing  of  one  form  into  another, 
thereby  acting  upon  a  new  principle — viz.,  the  absorp- 
tion or  blending  together  of  different  parts. 


Fig.    59. 


Fig.   60. 


Q.     Describe  the  next  stage  of  Gothic   architecture. 

A.  In  this  stage  the  principle  of  continuity  is  car- 
ried out  to  its  greatest  extent,  the  capitals  of  columns 
become  smaller,  and  ultimately  are  disused  altogether; 
string  courses  and  bands  are  more  seldom  seen,  and 
the  perpendicular  lines  are  carried  up  to  the  top  of  the 
building,  until  they  are  finally  lost  in  the  fan-tracery 
of  the  vaulting.  This  style  has  been  designated  the  Tu- 
dor, Rectilinear  Continuous,  or  Perpendicular  style. 


62 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Q.      What   is  the  shape  of  the  arches  in  (his  stylo? 

A.     Pointed  but  much  depressed  (Figs.  71-7:5).    This 
style  is  remarkable  for  the  introduction  and  use  of  the 

four-centered  arch,  which  is  used  for  both  pier  arches, 
doors,  and  windows,  but  which  gets  more  and  more  de- 
pressed, until  both  doors  and  windows  are  made  with 
square  lops,  like  those  of  A.ylsham  and  Norwich. 


Fig.    61. 


Q.     Describe  the  window  tracery  of  this  period. 

A.  The  perpendicular  principle  of  this  style  is 
further  carried  out  by  the  extension  of  the  mullions  up 
to  the  tops  of  the  windows  in  place  of  the  flowing  tra- 
cery of  the  preceding  style.  The  immense  size  of  some 
of*  the  windows  necessitated  the  use  of  transoms  to  sup- 
port the  mullions. 

Q.  What  were  the  other  characteristics  of  this 
period  ? 

A.  The  abundant  use  of  paneling  both  for  doors  and 
walls,  which  partakes  largely  of  the  character  of  the 
window  tracery.  The  moldings  are  qoI  quite  so  rich 
as  those  of  the  preceding  styles,  hut  the  excess  of  orna- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


63 


ment  generally  is  so  great  as  to  obtain  for  this  style  the 
designation  of  "Florid." 

Q.     Name  some  examples  which  may  be  considered 

as  specimens  of  this  style. 


Fig.    63 


Fig.    65. 


A.     Many  very  beautiful  specimens  are  in  existence, 
e.   g.,   Henry   VII.  's   Chapel   at  Westminster,   parts   of 


Fig.    66.     Flamboyant  Window.  Fig.   67.    Flowing  Tracery. 


Gloucester  Cathedral,  Winchester  College  and  Cathe- 
dral, St.  Michael's,  Coventry,  and  Trinity  Church,  Strat- 
ford-upon-Avon. 


64 


EASY  LESSONS  IN   ARCHITECTURE 


Q.  What  was  the  style  of  architecture  in  use  in  this 
country  in  the  sixteenth  century? 

A.  It  was  termed  Debased,  or  Elizabethan,  and  an- 
swers to  the  Renaissance  of  the  French,  being  a  curious 
mixture  of  the  Perpendicular  style  with  the  Grecian 
and  Roman  architecture  which  was  then  being  revived. 
It  is  remarkable  how  few  churches  were  erected  dur- 
ing this  period,  but  many  very  beautiful  country  man- 
sions belonging  to  this  time  are  still  in  existence. 

Q.     What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  Renaissance? 

A.  The  Renaissance  is  the  name  given  by  the  French 
to  the  style  which  was  developed  in  their  country  in 


Fig.   68. 


Continuous  Window 
Head. 


Fig. 


69.      Arcade,  Romscy  Church, 
Hampshire. 


the  sixteenth  century  from  a  revival  of  classic  detail, 
which  was  mixed  up  with  French  Gothic. 


SOME    GENERAL    REMARKS. 

The  term  Gothic  was  fundamentally  incorrect,  be- 
cause the  architecture  to  which  it  was  applied  was 
nothing  more  than  the  natural  sequel  and  outgrowth  ot 
the  Romanesque  style,  which  in  turn  was  derived  from 
the  Roman  architecture.  The  changes  of  style  which 
came  about  in  the  early  centuries  were  due  largely  to 
alterations  in  principle  of  construction,  the  use  of  the 
round  arch  by  the  Romans  taking  the  place  of  the  lintel 
construction  of  the  Greeks.  Official  recognition  by  the 
Emperor  Constantine  in  the  year  328  A.  D.,  and  his 
zeal  in  building  places  of  worship,  brought  about  the 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


65 


construction  of  basilicas.  Many  of  these  basilicas  were 
formerly  Roman  halls  of  justice  and  were  afterward 
used  as  churches.  The  arch  was  used  extensively  in 
their  construction,  and  their  plan  had  formed  the  basis 
for  almost  all  places  of  worship  up  to  the  present  day. 
The  gradual  evolution  of  Christian  architecture  from 
Italy  and  elsewhere  brought  about  the  style  which  was 
appropriately  called  Romanesque.  Speaking  of  Eng- 
land prior  to  the  Norman  conquest,  there  was  little  or 
no   architecture   worthy  of  mention.     The   few  extant 


Fig.    70.     HIP-KNOB,  COVENTRY. 


Fig.   71. 


remains  of  Saxon  buildings  consisted  mostly  of  towers 
and  bore  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  some  built  in 
Italy  about  the  same  period.  Their  chief  peculiarity 
was  an  arrangement  of  alternating  long  and  short 
stones  at  the  corners  and  in  vertical  strips  on  the  ex- 
terior, which  was  known  as  long  and  short  work.  With 
the  Norman  conquest  there  came  extraordinary  activity 
in  the  building  of  churches  and  abbeys.  These  new 
churches  were  of  the  Romanesque  type,  though  differ- 
ing somewhat  from  the  Norman-Romanesque  churches 


66 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


of  the  same  period.  Gothic  architecture  was  derived 
from  the  Norman-Romanesque,  the  great  change  taking 
place  in  the  use  of  the  pointed  arch  instead  of  the  semi- 
circular one.  The  pointed  arch  was  the  outcome  of  the 
difficulty  of  making  two  arches  or  vaults  over  two  ad- 
joining spaces  of  different  width,  so  that  they  should 
be  of  the  same  height.  At  the  end  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury architects  were  working  out  this  problem,  and  with 
the  power  of  the  church  becoming  greater  and  greater, 
ecclesiastical  architecture  made  rapid  strides,  and  there 
was  a  remarkable  variety  in  unity  to  be  found  in  the 
resultant  efforts.     This  variety  was  due  to  subdivision 


Fig.   72. 

of  labor  in  the  design.  The  builder  seemed  to  have 
planned  only  the  main  scheme  of  the  building,  leaving 
the  precise  form  of  each  detail  to  be  determined  ac- 
cording to  the  skill  or  fancy  of  the  artisan  to  whom  the 
work  was  entrusted;  and  yet,  with  all  this  variety,  the 
general  scheme  was  much  the  same. 

The  period  of  Gothic  architecture  lasted  about  four 
centuries,  in  which  there  were  three  distinct  varieties, 
known  as  early  English,  decorated  and  perpendicular, 
as  shown  by  the  changes  in  the  form  of  window  tracery, 
doorways,  vaulting  and  the  different  forms  of  moldings 
characteristic  of  each  period.  The  period  of  the  build- 
ing or  portion  of  the  building  could  most  easily  be  dc- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  67 

termined  by  the  window  tracery,  the  elaboration  of 
which  was  due  to  the  increased  use  of  stained  glass. 
The  windows  not  only  became  more  ornate,  but  much 
larger,  until  in  the  late  perpendicular  period  the  walls 
seemed  to  be  almost  a  continuous  surface  of  stained 
glass.  At  the  same  time  that  this  occurred  the  vaulting 
became  more  and  more  elaborate,  and  with  the  decad- 
ence of  Gothic  architecture  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century  the  vaulting  had  almost  the  likeness  of  lace 
work. 

ON   THE   DEVELOPMENT    AND   DISTINGUISHING   FEATURES   OP 

SUCCEEDING    STYLES   FROM    THE    ANCIENT    GRECIAN   TO 

THE   ROMANESQUE. 

Q.  What  different  races  would  be  likely  to  have 
used  the  primitive  forms  of  habitation  you  have  men- 
tioned, viz.,  the  cave,  the  tent  and  the  hut? 

A.  The  cave  hollowed  out  of  the  earth  would  be  most 
likely  to  be  used  by  those  races  who  adopted  hunting 
and  fishing  for  their  pursuits,  and  would  not  have 
much,  time  for  mechanical  occupation.  The  tent  was 
used  by  those  engaged  in  pastoral  duties,  on  account  of 
the  frequent  removals  necessitated  by  changing  pasture 
for  their  flocks;  and  the  hut  was  no  doubt  used  by 
those  who  were  engaged  in  agricultural  occupation,  and 
required  a  permanent  dwelling  near  the  scene  of  their 
labors. 

Q.  "What  styles  of  architecture  are  most  likely  de- 
veloped from  these  original  sources? 

A.  The  architecture  of  India,  Assyria  and  Egypt  was 
no  doubt  derived  from  caves  and  excavations,  that  of 
China,  etc.,  from  the  tent,  while  that  of  Greece  and 
Rome  was  derived  from  the  wooden  hut. 

Q.     Explain  very  briefly  the  grounds  for  assuming 


68  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

that  the  excavated  cave  was  the  model  for  Egyptian 
and    Indian   architecture. 

A.  The  remains  which  exist  at  the  present  day  of 
the  Indian  rock-cut  temples  and  the  similarity  between 
these  and  their  edifices  above  ground  go  far  to  prove 
the  theory  as  regards  India,  while  the  massiveness  and 
the  converging  walls  of  Egyptian  architecture  give 
rise  to  a  similar  belief. 

Q.  Explain,  in  a  similar  manner,  the  reason  for  be- 
lieving the  tent  to  have  been  the  model  of  Chinese  ar- 
chitecture. 

A.  The  principal  proof  is  the  form  of  the  roofs, 
which  nothing  but  a  tent  could  have  suggested,  and 
the  extreme  lightness  of  appearance  which  character- 
izes the  style.     (See  Figs.  73  and  74.) 

Q.  Why  may  it  be  believed  that  the  principle  of 
Grecian  architecture  was  derived  from  the  wooden 
hut  ? 

A.  The  chief  features  of  Grecian  architecture  al- 
ready enumerated  all  give  evidence  of  their  having 
been  copied  in  stone  from  what  were  originally  timber 
structures;  and  perhaps  it  will  be  well  to  enumerate 
each  portion  separately. 

Q.     What  was  the  origin  of  the  column? 

A.  Trunks  of  trees  driven  into  the  ground  to  sup- 
port a  covering  for  shelter  were  the  origin  of  the  col- 
umns used  to  support  the  porticoes  of  temples,  etc., 
which  became  one  of  the  chief  features  of  the  sty]". 
As  the  trees  were  wider  in  diameter  at  the  bottom  than 
at  the  top,  so  the  columns  were  made  to  diminish  in 
thickness  as  they  rose. 

Q.     What  was  the  origin  of  the  capitals  and  bases? 

A.  The  first  step  in  the  formation  of  an  architec- 
tural capital  was  no  doubt  a  flat  slab  of  stone,  tile  or 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


69 


wood  placed  on  the  top  of  the  column  to  give  it  a  larger 
surface  to  receive  the  architrave.  The  Doric  capital 
consists  simply  of  this  square  slab  or  abacus,  with  an 
echinus  and  annule  or  ring  below  it,  and  it  has  been 
suggested  that  the  bases  were  added  to  raise  the  columns 
from  the  earth  to  prevent  rot  from  dampness.    It  must, 


TEM PLE  Of  AFC'LLO  EPICWIIJ9  AT  BA5&E   IN  AIIPAIHA 


Plate  3. 

however,  be  remembered  that  the  Doric,  the  earliest  of 
the  Grecian  orders,  had  no  base.     (Plate  3.) 

Q.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  fillets  at  top  and  bot- 
tom of  the  shafts? 

A.  The  column,  being  originally  of  wood,  no  doubt 
had  ties  or  rings  of  iron  at  top  and  bottom  to  pre- 
vent the  wood  from  splitting,  and  these  were  afterward 
imitated  in  the  stone  column. 


70  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

Q.     What  was  the  origin  of  the  architrave? 
A.     The  architrave,  as  its  name  implies,  was  the  chief 
beam  of  wood  laid  horizontally  on  the  tops  of  the  col- 
umns, and  was  intended  to  support  the  covering  of  the 
entire  building. 

Q.     What  was  the  origin  of  the  frieze  ? 
A.     The  joists  of  the  ceiling  rested  on  the  architrave, 
and  the  space  occupied  by  their  height  was  the  origin 
of  the  frieze,  the  ends  of  the  joists  being  ornamented 
with  triglyphs,  and  the  open  spaces  between  the  joist 
formed  the  metopes,  which  were  afterward  filled  in  solid. 
Q.     What  was  the  origin  of  the  pediment  ? 
A.     The  inclined  rafters  of  the  roof  projected  beyond 
the  face  of  the  building  and  the  angle  formed  by  the 
pitch  of  the  roof  gave  the  form  of  the  pediment. 

Q.  Explain  the  different  parts  of  the  cuts.  (Figs. 
30  and  31.) 

A.     aa.  The  architraves. 

bb.   The  ridge  piece  or  columen. 

c.   The  king  post  or  columna  of  a  roof, 
dd.    The  tiebeam  or  transom, 
e.   The  strut  or  capreolus. 
ff.   The  rafters  or  contherii. 
gg.   The  purlins  or  templa. 
hh.   The  common  rafters  or  asseres. 
Q.     Which   of   the  three   Grecian   orders  gives   most 
encouragement  to  the  theory  of  the  wooden  model  ? 

A.  The  Doric,  which  was  the  most  ancient,  from  its 
severe  simplicity  gives  great  weight  to  the  theory  of  its 
having  been  founded  upon  a  translation  into  stone  of 
previous  wooden  structures. 

Q.  What  was  the  next  step  in  the  advancement  of 
Grecian  architecture? 

A.  The  Ionic  order,  which  appears  to  have  sacri- 
ficed a  certain  amount  of  solidity  to  the  attainment  of 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


71 


elegance  and  finish,  and  to  have  lost  a  great  many  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  wooden  model. 

Q.     About  what  period  was  this? 

A.  About  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  at  a 
period  when  there  was  a  general  outburst  of  talent,  both 
for  sculpture  and  architecture,  throughout  Greece. 

Q.     What  was  the  next  advance  made  in  the  art? 

A.  The  Corinthian  order,  which  exhibits  still  further 
the  progress  of  the  art.  The  beautiful  capital  of 
acanthus  leaves,  the  elegant  frieze  and  the  costly  mar- 
bles used  in  its  construction  combined  to  make  this  the 
most  elegant  and  delicate  of  the  three  Grecian  orders. 


Fig.  74.  75. 

Q.  Are  the  remains  of  Grecian  workmanship  nu- 
merous ? 

A.  No;  unfortunately,  they  are  very  scarce;  and  it 
is  conjectured  that  owing  to  the  value  of  the  materials 
employed  many  of  the  most  splendid  buildings  were 
taken  down  by  the  Romans  after  their  conquest  of  the 
country  and  re-erected  in  Rome  to  increase  the  glories 
of  their  own  capital. 

Q.  What  put  a  stop  to  the  further  development  of 
Grecian  architecture? 

A.  The  entire  subjugation  of  that  country  by  the 
Romans. 


72  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

Q.  To  whom  must  we  now  look  for  the  further  de- 
velopment of  the  art  ? 

A.  To  the  Romans,  who,  although  they  had  a  style 
of  their  own,  founded  on  the  principle  of  the  arch, 
acknowledged  the  intellectual  superiority  of  the  Greeks 
and  submitted  to  their  teaching  in  the  matters  of  art; 
and  much  that  was  thoroughly  good  in  their  own  style 
was  disguised  or  concealed  by  Greek  decoration. 

Q.  Did  the  Romans  go  the  proper  way  to  work  to 
develop  their  own  style  of  architecture? 

A.  No;  they  sacrificed  their  own  superior  construc- 
tive genius,  which,  if  strictly  adhered  to  and  properly 
developed,  might  in  their  hands  have  produced  the  most 
stupendous  results,  for  the  sake  of  a  foreign  ornamen- 
tation which,  however  beautiful,  was  entirely  unsuited 
to  their  peculiar  principle  of  construction,  the  Greek 
capital  and  entablature  being  thoroughly  antagonistic 
to  the  principal  feature  of  pure  Roman  work. 

Q.  "What  was  the  constructive  principle  of  pure  Ro- 
man work? 

A.  The  real  principle  of  ancient  Roman  architecture 
was  that  of  the  arch,  and  the  remains  of  their  build- 
ings where  Grecian  decoration  was  abstained  from  prove 
that  they  were  constructed  with  a  massiveness  and 
strength  which  has  rarely  been  equaled  since. 

Q.     What  was  probably  the  origin  of  the  arch? 

A.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  first  idea  of  the 
arch  was  suggested  by  the  inclined  struts  which  were 
often  used  in  timber  structures  to  lessen  the  strain  on 
a  beam,  and  which  were  placed  from  the  sides  of  the 
columns  to  the  under  side  of  the  beam.  But  in  truth 
the  theories  which  profess  to  account  for  the  origin  of 
this  form  of  construction  are  almost  endless. 

Q.     What  was  the  character  of  Roman  workmanship? 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  73 

A.  The  detail  of  Roman  workmanship  was  more 
meretricious  in  effect  and  possessed  greater  richness 
than  the  Grecian,  but  was  destitute  of  the  chaste  sim- 
plicity, sublimity  and  grandeur  of  the  Grecian  model. 

Q.  What  was  the  first  symptom  of  decay  in  Roman 
architecture  ? 

A.  The  abandonment  of  columns  from  their  natural 
and  legitimate  use  as  a  means  of  support  and  their  em- 
ployment merely  for  ornament,  in  many  instances  being 
half  imbedded  in  the  walls. 

Q.  What  was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  decline  of 
Grecian  and  Roman  architecture? 

A.  The  overthrow  of  the  Roman  power  by  the 
northern  races  of  Europe,  who  stripped  the  temples,  etc., 
of  all  the  gorgeous  decorations  with  which  they  were 
adorned,  and  so  revealed  the  genuine  principle  of  con- 
struction, which  became  in  their  hands  the  germ  of  a 
style  which,  when  fully  developed,  contained  in  it  all 
that  was  beautiful  and  grand. 

ON  THE  ROMANESQUE  STYLES. 

Q.  What  was  the  next  step  toward  the  development 
of  a  new  style  and  the  disuse  of  the  ancient  ? 

A.  The  transition  period  from  the  Roman  style  to 
the  succeeding  one  was  marked  by  the  abandonment  of 
the  use  of  the  Grecian  entablature  above  the  columns, 
and  the  use  of  arches  of  a  semicircular  form  for  win- 
dow and  other  opening's  which  sprung  immediately  from 
the  imposts  of  the  columns. 

Q.  What  was  the  name  given  to  the  architecture 
which  succeeded  that  of  Rome? 

A.     The  Romanesque. 

Q.  What  particular  styles  of  architecture  are  in- 
cluded in  the  Romanesque? 


74  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

A.  The  term  Romanesque  embraces  all  those  styles 
of  architecture  which  prevailed  between  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Roman  Empire  and  the  use  of  the  vertical 
Mediaeval  style,  and  in  it  may  be  included  the  Saxon, 
Norman  and  Lombard  styles. 

Q.     What  aretfie  chief  characteristics? 

A.  They  partake  much  of  the  character  of  the  de- 
based Roman  style,  which  accounts  for  the  name  of  Ro- 
manesque. The  style  is  also  called  Byzantine  from  its 
introduction  at  Byzantium.  This  style  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  progenitor  of  the  Mediaeval  styles,  as  in 
it  may  be  found  the  germ  of  many  features  which 
were  afterward  developed  and  brought  to  perfection  in 
them. 

Q.  What  peculiar  kind  of  roof  is  often  introduced 
in  Romanesque  or  Byzantine  buildings? 

A.  The  cupola,  which  is  a  kind  of  dome,  and  con- 
structed on  the  principle  of  the  arch. 

Q.  What  model  did  the  Romanesque  builders  em- 
ploy in  their  erection  of  the  early  Christian  churches? 

A.  The  earliest  Christian  churches  appear  to  have 
been  built  upon  a  model  of  the  Roman  Basilica  or  Hall 
of  Justice,  which  was  divided  down  the  middle  by 
rows  of  columns  forming  aisles,  and  in  many  cases  had 
a  semicircular  recess  at  the  end,  no  doubt  suggesting 
the  idea  of  the  apsidal  termination  to  the  chancel,  no- 
ticeable in  the  remains  of  many  Saxon  and  Norman 
churches. 

Q.    Describe  the  Saxon  style. 

A.  The  Saxon  style  was  that  species  of  Romanesque 
which  was  in  use  in  England  before  the  Norman  was 
introduced.  It  was  of  simple  character,  and  no  doubt 
the  greater  portion  of  the  churches,  etc.,  were  of  wood, 
the  existing  remains  exhibiting  evidence  of  their  having 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  I  0 

been  copied  in  stone  from  previous  wooden  models. 
The  round  arch  was  used  and  occasionally  the  pillars 
were  octagonal.  The  remains  of  Saxon  workmanship 
in  the  old  parish  churches  are  very  numerous,  but  they 
are  of  a  very  fragmentary  character. 

Q.     What  was  the  Norman  style? 

A.  The  Norman  style  was  that  species  of  Roman- 
esque which  was  practiced  by  the  Normans,  and  which 
was  introduced  and  fully  developed  in  England  after 
they  had  established  themselves  in  it. 

Q.     Describe  the  chief  features  of  the  Norman  style. 

A.  Plainness  and  massiveness  are  the  chief  charac- 
teristics of  the  earlier  examples.     The  arches,  windows 


PiS..  76.  CORNICE  SUPPORTED  BY  CONSOLES 

and  doorways  were  semicircular.  The  pillars  are  very 
massive,  and  are  often  built  of  small  stones  laid  like 
brickwork.     (Fig.  45.) 

Q.    Are  the  later  examples  as  plain  as  the  earlier? 

A.  No;  as  the  style  progressed  the  ornamentation 
was  more  elaborate,  and  in  later  examples  the  arches, 
doorways  and  windows  are  most  richly  molded  (Fig. 
42),  and  often  sculptured  with  grotesque  figures. 
Many  beautiful  examples  of  Norman  art  remain,  e.  g., 
parts  of  Petersborough,  Ely,  Norwich,  Hereford,  and 
Gloucester  Cathedrals,  and  the  Chapel  of  St.  Cross, 
Winchester. 


76 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Q.  What  other  features  do  the  later  specimens  of 
Norman  work  present? 

A.  The  elevation  of  the  interior,  and  the  division 
into  the  triple  range  of  pier  arch,  triforium,  and  cleres- 
tory. This  is  a  great  advance  toward  the  pure  Gothic 
principle,  but  it  is  as  yet  only  partial,  as  the  horizontal 
lines  between  each  remained  unbroken. 

Q.  What  further  advance  was  required  to  develop 
fully  the  Gothic  principle? 

A.  The  transitional  progress  of  the  Norman  style 
from  a  Romanesque  to  a  Gothic  character  was  further 
marked  by   the   introduction   of   small   vertical   shafts 


TOT 

H 

^it/^x/^, 

i 

rt 

Fig.    77.  Fig.    78. 

running  up  the  piers  of  the  roof,  dividing  the  triforium 
and  clerestory  into  parts.  The  effect  of  the  horizontal 
division  into  layers  of  the  Romanesque  style  is  now 
gone,  and  the  vertical  principle  of  Gothic  architecture 
begins  to  establish  itself.  In  many  later  examples  of 
Norman  work,  the  departure  from  the  Romanesque 
principle  is  so  great  as  to  remove  them  entirely  from 
the  Romanesque  class  to  the  Gothic. 

Q.  What  other  change  was  now  necessary  to  es- 
tablish fully  the  principle  of  Gothic  architecture? 

A.  The  universal  adoption  of  the  pointed  arch,  in 
place  of  the  semicircular,  was  alone  needed  to  estab- 
lish fully  the  principle  of  vertically,  which  is  one  of 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


77 


the  principal  characteristics  of  pure  Gothic  architec- 
ture. 

Q.     Were  the  Normans  good  builders? 

A.  It  can  hardly  be  said  that  they  were  good 
builders,  for  notwithstanding  the  massiveness  of  their 
works  they  appear  to  have  been  careless  with  their  foun- 
dations, often  commencing  new  work  upon  the  founda- 
tions  of   old   buildings.      Very   many   of  their  towers 


Pig.  79. 

have  fallen  from  this  cause,  and  the  fact  of  our  having 
so  many  remains  of  their  work  may  be  attributed  to 
the  immense  masses  of  stone  employed  in  their  ma- 
sonry, rather  than  to  the  skill  with  which  they  were 
laid. 

Q.     What  is  the  Lombard  style? 

A.  The  Lombard  style  was  that  species  of  Roman- 
esque which  was  in  use  on  some  parts  of  the  Continent 


78 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


of  Europe  during  the  periods  when  the  Saxon  and 
Norman  styles  were  in  use  in  this  country,  and  corres- 
ponded with  them  in  its  development  into  the  Conti- 
nental Gothic. 


ON  THE  MODERN  STYLES  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

Q.  What  course  was  adopted  by  architects  on  the 
decline  of  Gothic  architecture? 

A.  They  tried  to  adopt  the  ancient  Grecian  and  Ro- 
man styles  to  modern  requirements,  an  attempt  which 
resulted  in  the  production  of  what  is  now  termed  the 
Italian  stvle. 


Fig.    80. 

Q.     Describe  the  Italian  style. 

A.  The  Italian,  which  embraces  the  Florentine, 
modern  Roman  and  Venetian  schools,  may  be  considered 
as  an  adaptation  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  orders. 
(  Figs.  76,  77,  78  and  70.) 

Q.  What  are  the  chief  features  of  the  Florentine 
style  ? 

A.  The  Florentine,  a  variety  of  the  Italian  style,  is 
characterized  by  the  absence  of  columns  on  the*  outside 
and  by  massive  cornices  with  which  the  buildings  are 
crowned.     This  style  has  rather  a  heavy  appearance. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


79 


The  Pandolfini   Palace,  Fig.  80,  at  Florence  is  a  very 
good  example. 

Q.  Describe  the  chief  features  of  the  modern  Roman 
style. 

A.  The  buildings  of  this  style  present  a  most  im- 
posing appearance,  which  is  not  marred  by  the  too 
great  severity  of  the  Florentine  school,  and  the  use  of 
columns  in  the  facades  renders  them  more  light  and 
pleasing.  The  Farnese  Palace  at  Rome,  Fig.  81,  is  a 
beautiful  example  of  this  style.     The  churches  at  Rome 


:-^aom^ 


Pig.   81. 


built  in  this  style  are  characterized  by  an  excessive 
amount  of  ornament.     (See  also  Fig.  82.) 

Q.  What  special  feature  is  introduced  in  the  style 
known  as  the  Venetian? 

A.  The  use  of  rustic  work  for  the  basement  and 
ground  floors,  which  consist  in  the  front  edges  of  the 
stones  being  beveled  or  molded,  so  that  there  is  a  space 
of  one  and  a  half  inches  or  two  inches  round  each  stone 
on  flu'  face.  The  Pompeii  Palace,  Fig.  82,  at  Verona, 
and  the  Church  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice  are  beautiful 
specimens  of  this  style. 

Q.     What  is  a  Mezzanine? 


80 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


A.  A  low  intermediate  story  which  is  sometimes 
made  in  the  Italian  styles,  to  run  between  two  stories 
of  greater  height. 

Q.  Give  the  names  of  two  celebrated  architects  who 
introduced  the  Italian  style  into  England  with  great 
success,  with  examples  of  their  works. 

A.  Inigo  Jones,  who  designed  Hie  banqueting  house 
at  "Whitehall,  and  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  who  de- 
signed St.   Paul's  Cathedral,   St.   Stephen's  Walbrook, 


Fig.   82. 

and  nearly  all  the  other  churches  in  the  city  of  Lon- 
don, which  were  rebuilt  after  the  greal  fire. 

Q.     What  is  the  present  style  of  architecture? 

A.  There  is  no  style  of  architecture  thai  can,  strictly 
speaking,  be  called  that  of  the  present  period.  The 
architecture  of  the  present  day  is  chiefly  copied  or  modi- 
fied from  the  ancient  and  mediaeval  styles;  and  archi- 
tects seem  to  hope  that  by  strictly  adhering  to  the 
genuine  principles  of  both,  a  new  style  may  gradually 
be  developed. 


THE  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLES  OF 
ANTIQUITY. 

PART  II. 
INDIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

ROCK-TEMPLES. 

1.  Our  knowledge  of  Indian  architecture  is  essen- 
tially of  modern  growth,  inasmuch  as  no  reference  to 
the  subject  is  to  be  found  in  ancient  European  writ- 
ings. Although,  however,  modern  research  and  infor- 
mation are  in  general  only  partial,  still  they  are  suffi- 
cient for  the  acquisition  of  a  knowledge  of  the  peculiari- 
ties of  Indian  art.  Our  investigations  on  this  subject 
are  favored  by  the  fact  that  the  ancient  Hindoo  race 
has  subsisted  to  our  own  day,  and  has  erected  its  monu- 
ments in  the  same  distinctive  type,  although  many 
minor 'alterations  may  have  supervened  with  the  lapse 
of  time. 

2.  When  we  take  into  consideration  the  great  in- 
fluence which  the  religion  of  the  Hindoos  exercised  on 
the  form  of  their  buildings,  it  may  be  advisable,  before 
proceeding  further,  to  mention  some  particulars  of  the 
principal  features  of  their  worship. 

In  the  religion  of  the  Hindoos  a  distinction  must  be 
observed  between  the  creeds  of  Brahma  and  of  Buddha. 
They  conceive  Brahma,  as  the  Supreme  Being,  to  be 
formless.  All  emanations  from  him  are  worshipped  and 
placed  in  their  temples  as  idols:     Siva,  the  great  god, 

81 


82  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

the  productive  and  at  the  same  time  destructive  power 
of  Nature,  whose  symbol  is  fire,  and  Vishnu,  the  pre- 
serving power,  whose  symbol  is  water. 

These  three  chief  gods,  Brahma,  Siva,  and  Vishnu, 
are  also  worshipped  conjointly  as  a  three-headed  figure. 
Besides  them,  there  is  a  large  number  of  gods  of  in- 
ferior rank. 

3.  Various  sects  exist  among  the  Hindoos,  the  prin- 
cipal, however,  are  the  Brahmins  and  the  Buddhists, 
which  are  essentially  antagonistic.  The  religion  of  Bud- 
dha claims  to  be  a  purer  form  of  Brahminism,  and 
Gautama,  king  of  Magadha,  surnamed  Buddha,  i.  e., 
The  Sage,  is  considered  as  its  founder.  The  epoch  when 
he  lived  is  uncertain ;  it  was,  however,  not  later  than 
543  B.  C,  with  which  date,  as  that  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  Buddhism  into  Ceylon,  the  chronology  of  the 
island  begins.  The  religion  of  Buddha  still  prevails  in 
Ceylon,  as  also  in  the  Malay  peninsula  and  in  many  of 
the  East  Indian  islands,  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
Chinese  empire,  in  Thibet,  and  amongst  the  Mongolian 
tribes. 

4.  Two  classes  of  monuments  are  to  be  distinguished 
in  Indian  architecture,  besides  later  Mahometan  build- 
ings, which  are  not  to  be  considered  amongst  the  con- 
structions of  the  Hindoos:  viz.,  real  structural  build- 
ings and  cave-temples,  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock. 

5.  The  latter  kind  of  structure  is  frequent  in  the 
mountainous  district  of  the  Deccan  and  in  the  islands  of 
Elphanta  and  Salsette,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bombay, 
especially  at  Kanneri ;  in  the  interior  of  the  country  and 
caves  at  Karli  and  Mhar,  and  those  near  Xassuk  and 
Ajunta,  and  above  all,  the  marvellous  and  magnificent 
temple  of  Ellora,  are  especially  worthy  of  mention. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  83 

6.  We  possess  but  little  reliable  information  regard- 
ing the  age  of  Indian  architectural  remains.  The  dawn 
of  Indian  civilization  began,  speaking  in  round  num- 
bers, between  2000  and  3000  B.  0.,  while  the  date  of 
the  earliest  sacred  writings  of  the  people,  viz.,  the  Veda, 
may  be  assigned  to  about  1400  B.  C. ;  and  that  of  the 
great  epic  poems,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  Ram- 
ayana  and  the  Mahabharata,  to  about  1000  B.  C.  It  was 
in  these  poems  and  through  these  poems  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Greeks,  that  the  diversified  religious  system  of  the 
Hindoos,  namely,  Brahminism,  was  developed.  In  the 
middle  of  the  sixth  century  B.  C.  the  above-mentioned 
establishment  of  Buddhism  took  place,  and  in  the  sixth 
century  A.  D.  the  extirpation  of  that  religion  from 
India,  by  which  time,  however,  it  had  extended  itself 
over  the  countries  which  have  been  previously  enumer- 
ated. 

7.  The  cave-temples  are  earlier  than  the  structural 
ones;  and  amongst  these  a  distinction  is  to  be  drawn 
between  the  Brahmin,  which  are  the  older,  and  the 
Buddhjst. 

Their  general  characteristics  are  rendered  obscure  by 
the  multiformity  of  Indian  architecture,  and  by  a  want 
of  any  settled  method:  since  in  excavating  the  rock 
neither  organic  laws  nor  constructive  principles  guided 
the  work,  as  must  needs  be  the  case  with  structural 
buildings,  but  a  purely  arbitrary  scheme  based  on  an 
uncultivated  taste,  as  well  as  an  uncontrolled  fancy, 
determined  the  shape  of  the  design.  The  following 
points  may,  however,  be  selected  as  being,  to  a  certain 
extent,  normal: — 

8.  .  The  Brahmin  cave-temples  (Fig.  1)  are,  as  a  rule, 
open   in   front,   and  are  sometimes   connected   with  an 


84 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Independent  structure  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock. 
They  consist,  generally,  of  a  main  quadrangular  space, 
on  which  the  sanctuary  containing  the  image  of  the 
god  stands;  in  some  instances  side  spaces  also  occur. 
This  space  is  low,  with  a  flat  roof,  supported  by  col- 
umns or  piers,  the  front  row  of  which  forms  the  facade 
of  the  temple.  Courts  with  colonnades  and  side  spaces 
in  front  of  them  are  also  met  with.  In  some  cases 
several  temple-spaces  are  found  in  continuous  proces- 
sion. 


Pig.   1.      CAVE-TEMPLE   OF  DUMAS-SEYNA  AT   ELLORA. 
A — Entrance.     B — Rock-Temple.     C — Small  Shrine. 


A  clear  space,  open  above,  is  hewn  out  of  the  rock, 
and  surrounds  the  detached  and  independent  portions 
of  the  temple,  which  consequently  has  the  appearance 
of  being  formed  of  a  block  left  in  the  center,  the  ex- 
ternal configuration  of  which  is  shown  by  Figure  2, 
which  represents  the  so-called  Kylas  at  Ellora,  which 
was  formed  about  1000  A.  D.  In  the  interior  a  grotto 
has  been  excavated,  with  several  smaller  caves  in  the 
background.  The  walls  of  rock  which  surround  the 
open  space  are  pierced  with  galleries  containing  little 
shrines. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


85 


9.  The  Buddhist  cave-temples  differ  principally  from 
the  Brahmin  in  not  having  an  open  exterior.  The  in- 
ternal design  of  these  temples  is  invariably  an  oblony 
space  terminating  in  a  semi-circle  at  the  further  ex- 
tremity,  surrounded   by   a   narrow   passage,   which   is 


Fig.  2.    KYLAS  AT  ELLORA. 


separated  from  the  main  space  by  rows  of  pillars.  The 
vault-like  roof  is  excavated  in  the  shape  of  an  elongated 
semi-circle,  and  at  times  assumes  a  horse-shoe  form. 
The  roof  of  the  passage  is  flat.  In  the  background  of 
the  central  space  is  the  shrine,  with  the  constantly  re- 
curring symbol  of  Buddhism,  the  so:called  Dagoba,  a 
hemispherical  block  resting  on  a  cylindrical  pedestal, 
and  figurative  of  a  water-bubble,  to  which  the  creed  of 


86 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Buddha  likens  the  human  frame,  and  which  is  especially 
intended  to  portray  the  transient  nature  of  all  that  is 
earthly. 

10.  The  following  peculiarities  of  detail  should  be 
especially  noticed  in  the  Indian  rock-temples.  The 
vegetable  kingdom  is  but  little  represented  in  the  dec- 


Fig.  3.    VIEW  OF  THE  INTERIOR  OF  BUDDHIST  CAVE-TEMPLE  AT 
WISNA  KARMA  AT  ELLORA. 


orations,  which  consist  on  the  contrary  of  combinations 
of  straight  and  curved  lines,  and  of  globular  and  flat 
shapes.  Animals  are  also  employed  in  the  ornamenta- 
tion, with  a  preference  for  the  more  powerful  beasts, 
such  as  lions  and  elephants;  these  are  introduced  ;is 
guardians  in  front  of  the  entrances,  while  in  the  in- 
terior they  answer  the  purpose  of  supports,  or  are  em- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


87 


ployed  as  ornaments  in  the  capitals  and  friezes.  These 
animals  have  probably  a  symbolic  meaning',  for  both 
are  considered  sacred,  and  according  to  the  Hindu) 
conception  of  transmigration,  the  souls  of  the  mighty 
arc  destined  to  inhabit  the  bodies  of  the  most  powerful 
beasts.  The  bulk  and  weight  of  these  animal  forms 
is  in  entire  accordance  with  the  architectural  style  of 


Fig.  4.     INDIAN  PILLAR  FROM  THE  ROCK-TEMPLE  OF  PARASONA 
RAMA  AT  ELLORA. 


the  whole  structure ;  as  is  also  the  case  with  the  colossal 
human  figures,  which  are  ranged  along  the  walls,  cut 
out  in  prominent  relief.  These  figures  must  have  cre- 
ated an  impression  of  awe  in  the  dim  twilight  which 
reigned  in  the  temple. 


»8 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


11.  The  supports,  which  in  every  other  style,  whether 
as  piers  or  columns,  constitute  the  distinctive  element, 
assume  a  vast  variety  of  forms.  In  some  instances, 
especially  in  the  Buddhist  caves,  they  are  quite  plain, 
quadrangular  or  octagonal  in  shape,  and  ornamented  at 
the  top  with  a  shallow  carved  moulding,  and  surmounted 
by  an  abacus.  They  are  generally,  however,  richer,  and 
composed  of  four  principal  parts:  (1)  of  a  quadrangu- 
lar base,  which  is  higher  than  it  is  broad,  and  which 
terminates  above  in  a  sharp  arris  or  in  a  kind  of  volute. 


Fig.  5.      INTERIOR  OF  ROCK-TEMPLE  OF  INDRA  AT  ELLORA. 


On  this  rests  (2)  a  short  round  shaft,  which  springs 
like  a  stem  from  its  socket,  and  which  is  ornamented 
either  with  vertical  bands  or  with  flutes.  Three  circu- 
lar bands  of  the  same  type  constitute  (3)  the  neck,  on 
which  rests  (4)  the  capital,  which  generally  assumes  the 
shape  of  a  flattened  sphere,  and  which,  as  is  shown  in 
Fig.  5,  in  most  instances  supports  a  quadrangular  su- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


89 


perstructure,  with  corbels  and  an  architrave  above,  on 
which  rests  the  roof.  Since,  consequently,  none  of  the 
individual  parts,  which  have  astragals  carried  round 
them,  stand  out  prominently,  the  unity  of  the  pier  must 


Fig.   6.     INDIAN  PILLAR. 


naturally  suffer,  and  the  columns  appear  squat  and 
heavy,  owing  to  their  want  of  height  in  comparison  with 
the  breadth.  This  form  of  pier  is  also  the  basis  cf  the 
columnar  construction  in  structural  edifices. 


90  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

12.  Other  capitals  have  the  form  of  a  cube  instead  of 
a  sphere,  and  have  volutes  of  a  ram's-horn  shape  below. 
In  this  case  the  structure  over  the  quadrangular  pedestal 
is  not  round,  but  octagonal  and  ornamented  at  the  sides. 

The  capitals  are,  moreover,  sometimes  covered  with 
figures  of  animals,  as  has  been  mentioned  above.  At  a 
much  later  period  supports  are  met  with  in  structural 
buildings,  though  not  in  rock-temples,  formed  of  carv- 
ings of  symbolical  figures  in  high  relief,  as  is  shown  by 
the  pillar  in  Figure  6. 

13.  The  pillars  in  the  Buddhist  cave  constructions 
are,  for  the  most  part,  when  compared  with  the  Brahmin 
rock-temples,  more  slender  and  more  beautiful,  their 
rows  closer,  their  ornamentation  less  excessive;  the  walls 
are  not  covered  with  semi-detached  figures,  and  the  whole 
is  altogether  simpler  and  freer. 

In  the  same  way  as  the  most  massive  forms  were  in 
accordance  with  the  precepts  of  the  religion  of  Siva,  so 
the  more  enlightened  creed  of  Buddha  called  forth  a 
simpler  form  of  structure,  and  the  architectural  develop- 
ment maintained  its  connection  with  the  religious. 

These  heavy  massive  shapes,  these  gloomy  recesses,  en- 
cumbered with  gigantic  carvings,  are  very  deficient  as 
works  of  art;  but,  by  their  very  shortcomings,  they  ac- 
cord with  the  dark  fantastic  spirit  of  the  heathen  creeds 
of  Ilindostan. 

14.  With  a  view  to  the  preservation  of  the  relics  of 
Buddha,  or  of  priests  and  kings  who  were  considered 
as  sacred,  dagobas  of  various  sizes  were  constructed, 
called  in  the  vernacular  Topes,  from  the  Sanscrit  stupa 
(tumulus)  /'.  e.  body-hiding  (Fig.  7).  They  consist  of 
a  cylinder-shaped  substructure  with  pilasters,  on  which 
rests  a  second  substructure  without  pilasters,  supporting 


EASY  LESSONS  l.\   ARCHITECTURE  91 

a  superstructure  like  a  cupola.  The  upper  pari  of  this 
spheroidal  dome  is  in  every  instance  destroyed,  and  it 
is  consequently  impossible  to  discover  what  further 
adornment  crowned  the  whole  edifice.  The  cupola  con- 
struction is,  however,  only  external,  for  the  interior  con- 
sists entirely  of  massive  masonry,  with  the  exception  of 
some  small  spaces,  in  which,  for  the  most  part,  were 
found  valuables,  such  as  jewels  and  coins  of  the  period 
of  from  100  b.  c.  to  600  a.  d.     This  cupola  form  is  con- 


Fig.   7.     TOPE  OR  STUPA. 

sidered  to  typify  the  water-bubble  (which  was  held  >»> 
the  Buddhists  to  be  the  symbol  of  earthly  transitori- 
ness),  inasmuch  as  the  art  of  vaulting  was  still  unknown, 
and  the  massive  masonry  only  assumes  that  shape  in  the 
exterior. 

15.  Many  such  monuments  are  to  be  found  in  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  especially  in  the 
island  of  Java;  as  particularly  noteworthy  may  be  mer  • 
tioned  those  of  Brambanan  and  Boro-Budor,  which. 
however,  are  supposed  to  have  been  erected  not  earlier 
than  1100-1300  a.  d.     A  great  number  of  them  are  to  be 


92 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


found  on  the  Indus  at  Monikyala  and  Beloor,  and  also 
in  Cabul,  on  both  sides  of  the  highway  which  leads  from 
India  to  Persia  and  Bactria. 

As  mentioned  above,  similar  dagobas  of  small  dimen- 
sions, proportionate  to  the  size  of  the  construction,  are 
erected  in  the  sanctuaria  of  the  temples. 


MW^ 


Fig.  8.     GROUND-PLAN  OF  THE  PAGODA  AT  CHILLIMBARAM. 


PAGODAS. 


16.  According  to  the  description  of  a  town  given  in 
the  epic  poem  of  Ramayana,  an  art,  which  was  at  the 
same  time  nourishing  and  magnificent,  had  given  rise 
to  structural  buildings  as  early  as  1000  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  Nothing  reliable  can  be  adduced  con- 
cerning the  age  of  the  existing  structural  temples  of 
India,  which  are  called  pagodas,  from  the  word  bhagar- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


93 


ati,  i.  e.  sacred  house.     They  belong  both  to  antiquity 
and  modern  times. 

Some  of  these  pagodas  are  wonderfully  large  and  mag- 
nificent. They  consist  (Fig.  8)  of  one  or  more  quad- 
rangular courts  with  towers  at  the  corners,  surrounded 
by  a  wall  (a).  Large  pyramids  (b)  rising  in  stages 
cover  the  entrance  (Fig.  9),  behind  which  extend  colon- 


Fig.   9.      ENTRANCE   TO   A   PAGODA. 


nades.  Inside  the  courts  are  lustral  pools,  colonnades, 
large  halls,  called  Tschultris,  which  are  used  to  lodge 
pilgrims  in.  Small  side-temples  appear  with  cupolas 
surmounting  the  accessory  buildings.  Behind  the  court 
is  often  a  second  and  a  third,  in  which,  finally,  the  ehiei 
temple  stands.     Although  the  architecture  of  all  these 


94 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


constructive  designs  has  no  pretensions  to  artistic  or 
stylic  importance,  still  the  drawings,  Figures  10  and  11, 
illustrate,  in  forming  an  opinion  of  these  buildings,  how 
a  wonderfully  fantastic  effect  is  produced  by  a  tasteless 
excess  in  peculiar  ornamentation  and  architectural  fea- 
tures. 


Fig.   10.      TEMPLE  OF   VIMALA   SALE    (JAINA  ARCHITECTURE 
12th   CENTURY). 


17.  The  most  important  of  these  pagodas  are  those 
of  Madura,  Tanjore,  and  Chillimbaram.  The  island  of 
Ramisseram  furnishes  also  a  large  number  of  these 
sacred  buildings,  which  are,  in  their  way,  magnificent. 
The  most  celebrated  is  the  Pagoda  of  Juggernaut,  Avhich 
was  only  completed  towards  the  end  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury after  Christ.  This  was  built  after  the  model  of 
the  older  temples  which  are  now  in  ruins,  and  to  be 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


95 


found  in  numbers  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  existing 
building.  Monstrous  swarthy  idols,  with  eyes  of  spark- 
ling diamonds,  are  ranged  in  the  interior.     The  chief 


Fig.  !1      PILUAR  IN  FEIMAL  NAIK'S  TSCHULTRI. 


temple  stands  in  the  middle  of  a  large  square  court, 
which  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  and  at  the  vast  entrance 
are  placed  two  enormous  griffins,  or  winged  lions  in  a 


9G 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


sitting   posture,   facing  eastwards.     The  main  building 
consists  of  an  octagonal  tower,  180  feet  high,  resting 


Fig.    12.      PAGODA. 


Fig.    13. 


on  a  square  base.     The  angles  of  the  eight  sides  of  the 
tower  are  cu1  off  diamond-wise,  by  which  sixteen  sides 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


97 


are  formed,  which  arc  ornamented  with  flutes,  and,  ap- 
proaching- one  another  above  in  arched  curves,  Eorm  a 
sort  of  dome,  on  the  top  of  which  a  knob  or  crown  unites 
all  the  sixteen  sides  together.  From  the  vestibule  in 
front  of  the  entrance  an  uninterrupted  view  is  obtained 
of  the  idol  which  stands  in  the  midst  of  the  temple.  Be- 
hind the  principal  temple  are  colonnades,  towers,  and 
shrines  of  inferior  gods.  The  whole  is  encircled  with 
mouldings,  human  and  animal  figures,  embellishments 
and  inscriptions. 


Pig.  14.  ELEVATION  OF  THE  ENTRANCE-GATE  OF  THE  TEMPLE 
AT  CHILLIMBARAM. 


18.  All  these  buildings  are  of  a  pyramidal  shape, 
with  vertical  stages,  which  are  separated  by  curved  roofs 
and  terminate  above  in  the  form  of  a  cupola  (Fig.  12). 
Rows  of  small  cupolas  stand  out  from  the  roofs  of  the 
stages.  The  walls  of  these  stages  are  covered  in  a  be- 
wildering way  with  pilasters  and  niches,  with  intricately 
cut  cornices,  with  varied  intersecting  mouldings,  and 
with  manifold  and  fantastic  embellishments  and  carv- 
ings.    The  pillars,  which  are  round  or  octagonal,  resem- 


98 


EASY   LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


ble  the  columnar  structure  of  the  rock  temples,  and  are 
richly  ornamented  in  every  part.  The  inner  spaces  are 
low  and  dark,  but  the  cupolas  are  high  and  narrow. 
(The  cucurbitaceous,  i.  e.,  gourd-shape  cupolas  of  the 
more  recent  pagodas,  with  fluted  pointed  arches,  are 
borrowed  from  Mahometan  architecture.) 


Fig.    15. 


Fig.   16. 


To  sum  up,  it  should  particularly  be  observed  that  in 
these  structures  full  massive  forms,  instead  of  simple 
and  suitable  ones,  predominate;  that  a  pyramidal  super- 
structure takes  the  place  of  the  rectilineal  and  rectangu- 
lar; and  that,  finally,  neither  the  main  outlines  nor  the 
minuter  details  are  determined  by  fixed  laws,  but  rather 
by  arbitrary  discretion. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


99 


Figure  13  represents  a  pilaster  at  the  entrance-gate 
of  the  temple  at  Chillimbaram  (Fig.  14),  Figure  15  a 
column,  Figure  16  a  moulding,  and  Figure  17  a  front 
of  a  temple  of  late  Indian  style. 


Fig.    17.      ENTRANCE-GATE   OF   A    TEMPLE   AT   BEJANUGGUR. 
16th  Century. 


EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


19.  We  possess  varied  information  regarding  the  ex- 
istence of  an  early  civilization  in  Egypt,  both  from  the 
Bible  and  from  Greek  and  Roman  authors.  Religion, 
as  well  as  peculiar  manners  and  customs,  exercised  a 
great  influence  on  the  form  of  architecture.  Besides 
other  gods,  Osiris  and  Isis  were  especially  venerated ; 
perhaps  because  a  peculiar  relationship  was  established 
between  the  inundation  of  the  Nile  and  the  synchronous 


100         EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

change  in  the  sun's  orbit.  This  yearly  inundation  of 
the  Nile  was  of  the  very  highest  importance,  as  it  was 
only  from  this  source  that  the  land  derived  its  fertility. 
Many  of  the  gods  were  represented  with  heads  of  beasts : 
and  various  animals  were  themselves  accounted  sacred, 
as  cats,  serpents,  dogs,  ibis,  hawks.  Two  bulls  met  with 
especial  veneration;  Apis  at  Memphis,  and  Mneris  at 
Heliopolis. 

20.  It  is  supposed  that  Egyptian  religion  and  culture 
took  their  rise  in  the  district  of  Meroe  in  the  interior  of 
Africa,  and  that  following  the  course  of  the  Nile  they 
thence  spread  over  Egypt,  where,  at  first,  Thebes  and 
Memphis,  and  in  later  times  under  the  Greek  kings, 
Alexandria  especially,  were  powerful  and  important 
places;  particularly  the  first-mentioned  of  these  towns, 
as  its  mighty  ruins  testify,  which  are  situated  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  present  town  of  Shenay,  and  not 
far  from  the  villages  of  Assur,  Naha  and  Messura. 

21.  The  development  of  Egyptian  culture  is  to  be 
sought  in  the  primeval  history  of  this  people,  and  its 
origin  may  be  assigned  to  as  early  a  date  as  about  1700 
b.  c,  when  the  country  was  freed  from  the  nomad  race 
of  the  Hyksos,  which  had  burst  over  it  several  centuries 
previously. 

The  essentially  brilliant  period  of  Egyptian  art  was 
in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  b.  c,  in  the  reign 
of  Sesostris  or  Ramases  at  Thebes,  as  is  to  be  seen  by  the 
stupendous  monumental  buildings  and  figurative  repre- 
sentations of  that  king,  which  have  reference  to  his 
glorious  campaigns,  and  on  which  his  name  shines  re- 
splendent. This  flourishing  condition  of  Egypt  Listed 
for  centuries;  till  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, B.  c,  Psammeticus  by  the  admittance  of  foreigners 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE         101 

partially  put  an  cud  to  the  exclusiveness  which  the 
country  had  hitherto  enjoyed.  From  the  beginning  of 
the  sixth  century,  B.  C,  however,  the  country  was  sub- 
jected to  the  Persians  under  Cambyses,  then,  from  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  to  Grecian  rulers,  till  it 
finally  passed  under  the  sway  of  Rome.  Still,  however, 
during  these  various  periods,  Egyptian  nationality  main- 
tained its  existence  till  the  epoch  of  the  extension  of 
Christianity.  Through  this  agency,  and  especially  in 
consequence  of  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Arabs 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  old  order  of 
things  was  changed,  and  a  new  condition  was  effectuated. 

22.  From  the  expulsion  of  the  Hyksos  till  about  the 
third  century,  b.  c,  a  culture,  which  lasted  for  2,000 
years,  is  to  be  traced  in  the  monuments  of  Egypt.  Tn 
all  probability,  however,  the  epoch  of  the  origin  of  linmy 
of  these  monuments  must  be  accepted  as  a  much  earlier 
one :  for  when  the  yearly  average  rise  of  the  soil  through 
the  inundation  of  the  Nile  is  taken  into  consideration, 
the  present  elevation  of  the  surface  above  the  old  level 
on  which  the  monuments  of  Thebes  were  erected,  leads 
us  to  the  conclusion  that  they  must  have  been  con- 
structed about  4,760  years  before  the  commencement  of 
the  present  century,  that  is  to  say,  3,000  years  before  the 
birth  of  Christ.  In  these  monuments  at  Thebes  frag- 
ments have  been  found  which  were  wrought  in  a  similar 
style  on  the  reverse  side,  and  which  must  therefore  have 
formed  part  of  former  buildings,  and  this  fact  points  to 
the  conclusion  of  the  existence  of  an  already  long-estab- 
lished culture  at  the  time  of  the  construction  of  the  pres- 
ent monuments. 

23.  The  monuments  of  the  golden  age  of  Egyptian 
art,  namely,  the  time  of  Sesostris,  are  those  of  Homer's 


102 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


hundred-gated  Thebes,  the  capital  of  ancient  Egypt,  the 
diameter  of  which  city  was  two  geographical  miles  each 
way.  Its  ruins  are  called  after  the  villages  which  now 
stand  on  its  site,  as  the  temples  and  palaces  of  Luxor 
and  Karnak,  with  an  avenue  of  colossal  sphinxes  6,000 
feet  long;  a  palace  and  the  sepulchers  of  Medinet  Abu 
and  Kurnah.  Here,  too,  in  the  neighborhood  are  to  be 
seen  the  Rock-Tombs,  the  so-called  ' '  graves  of  the  kings, ' ' 
and  still  further,  below  Thebes,  the  Temple  of  Tentyris 
(Denderah). 


Fig.  18.     PYRAMID  OF  GHIZEH. 


24.  The  most  important  of  the  monuments  of  Nubia, 
and  which  have  only  become  known  in  our  own  times, 
are  the  Rock-Temples  of  Ipsamboul,  the  monuments  of 
Derri,  Kalabsche,  &c. 

In  Upper  Egypt,  the  well-preserved  temples  in  the 
islands  of  Philas  and  Elephantina;  those  of  Syene,  Ora- 
bos,  Esneh,  &c. 

In  Central  and  Lower  Egypt  no  important  remains 
exist:  of  the  capital,  Memphis,  we  find  only  tombs,  and 
the  pyramids,  the  sepulchers  of  the  kin^s. 

The  Egyptian  monuments,  of  which  we  possess  any 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  103 

knowledge,  consist  for  the  most  part  of  pyramids,  the 
tombs  of  the  kings,  and  their  palaces  and  temples. 

25.  The  pyramids  (Fig.  18)  form  a  distinct  class  by 
themselves  in  Egyptian  architecture,  and  present  no 
points  of  resemblance  with  other  structures.  Their  form 
is  substantially  invariable — a  simple  mass  resting  on  a 
square,  or  sometimes  approximately  square,  base,  with 
the  side  facing  with  slight  deviations  towards  the  four 
principal  winds,  and  tapering  off  gradually  towards  the 
top  to  a  point  or  to  a  flat  surface,  as  a  substitute  for  this 
apex. 

The  proportion  of  the  base  to  the  height  is  not  always 
the  same,  nor  is  the  angle  of  inclination  uniform. 

The  pyramids  were  constructed  in  platforms,  and  then 
reveted  or  coated  with  blocks  or  slabs  of  granite,  as  may 
still  be  observed  in  incomplete  pyramids.  Recently  the 
supposition  has  been  maintained  that  in  the  case  of  the 
largest  pyramids,  a  smaller  one  was  first  erected  as  a 
nucleus,  and  subsequently  enveloped  by  another  layer. 

The  interior  of  these  massive  structures  contains  nar- 
row passages  and  some  totally  dark  halls  or  chambers, 
and  probably  served  as  the  burial-places  of  the  kings 
wh  i  had  caused  them  to  be  constructed.  The  entrance 
to  these  buildings  is  raised  considerably  above  the  level 
of  the  base,  and  was  blocked-up  by  a  portcullis  of  granite, 
so  as  to  be  on  ordinary  occasions  inaccessible.  In  the 
pyramid  of  Cheops  the  entrance  is  raised  about  47  ft. 
6  in.  above  the  base.  From  thence  a  passage  about  320  ft. 
long  conducts  at  an  angle  of  26°  41'  downwards  to  a 
chamber  whose  roof  is  about  90  ft.  beneath  the  base  of 
the  pyramid.  From  this  chamber  leads  a  corridor  which 
has  not  yet  been  explored.  As  the  section  in  Fig.  10 
shows,  another  passage,  starting  in  an  upward  direction 


104 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


from   the   above-mentioned   downward-sloping  corridor 
leads  to  another  chamber,  and  a  still  further  passage 


I  «  '   I   I  1  i   !  ■  I   l  ■  |- 


iv\5 


Fig.  19.      SECTION  OF  THE  PYRAMID  OF  CIIE0PS  AT  GHIZEH. 

branching  off  again,  and  growing  smaller  as  it  ascends 
(Fig.  20)   conducts  to  the  so-called  Crowning  Hall  or 





Pig.  20.     SECTION  OF  A  CORRIDOR  IN  THE  PYRAMID  OF  CHEOPS. 

King's  Chamber,  which  is  34  ft.  3  in.  long,  and  17  ft. 
I  in.  bread. 
The  roof  of  this  apartment  is  formed  of  massive  blocks 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


105 


of  granite,  over  which,  with  a  view  to  supporting  the 
weight,  other  blocks  are  laid,  with  clear  intervals  be- 
tween (Fig.  21).    The  size  of  the  pyramids  is  various, 


.;-Tv  . 


mm 


5  10 

Fig.   21.      SECTION   OF  GRANITE  BLOCK   ROOFED   CHAMBER   IN 
THE  PYRAMID  OF   CHEOPS. 


but  for  the  most  part  very  considerable.  The  largest  is 
one  of  those  at  Ghizeh,  and  has  a  perpendicular  height 
of  448  ft,  and  a  breadth  of  728  ft.  on  each  side  of  the 
base. 


106 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


In  an  aesthetic  point  of  view,  these  buildings  occupy 
an  inferior  rank.  The  impression  which  they  make  is 
to  be  ascribed  to  their  size  and  striking  simplicity  as  well 


B  Si 

Fig.    22.      TEMPLE   OF   EDFU. 
-Pylon.      B — Obelisks.      C — Entrance.      D — Temple-Court.     E — Porti- 
cus.     F — Pronaos    (Court   with    colonnades).     (3 — Noas. 
H — Sanctuarium. 


as  to  the  associations  which  fancy  may  link  with  them. 

26.     The   principal   elements   in   the   designs   of   the 

Temples  (Fig.  22)  consist,  firstly,  of  the  temple  building 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE         107 

itself,  with  its  vestibules  and  side-buildings  which  served 
as  dwelling-places  for  the  priests;  secondly,  of  a  closed 
court  which  surrounded  the  actual  temple ;  and,  thirdly, 
of  a  stupendous  entrance-gate  of  peculiar  shape,  called 
the  Pylon. 

In  some  instances  a  second  forecourt  occurred,  before 
which  was  likewise  a  pylon,  and  occasionally  even  a 
third  pylon  was  found. 


lliii.:i!!!i|i!.i'!llhl!llj!i  lft!£:J!  s'i: :  ■•  >v'-:.^  -i"*  >'r-B!  i ..  miiiSft-CT  &.  \\  i,pi*  h-  m 

Fig  23.      SPHINX  AT  THEBES. 


The  avenues  to  these  pylons,  which  are  in  many  in- 
stances 6,000  ft.  long,  lead  through  rows  (dromos)  of 
colossal  sphinxes  or  rams  (Fig.  23),  and  through  various 
other  smaller  entrance-gates,  resembling  the  pylon  in 
form. 

27.  The  pylon  (Figs.  24  and  25),  the  main  entrance- 
gate,  which  conducts  into  the  front-court,  overlooks  all 
the  other  gates  and  the  whole  structure  of  the  temple. 
The  pylon  consists  of  three  parts — namely,  of  two  flank- 
ing towers,  and  the  gateway  thus  formed  between  them. 

This  gateway  again  is  flanked  by  perpendicular  jambs 


108 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.   24.      PYLON   AT   THE   PALACE   AT   LUXOR. 


Fig.   25.      PROFILE  OF  PYLON.      Fig.   22,  WITH  COLOSSAL  STATUE 
AND    OBELISK. 


adorned  with  sculptures,  and  covered  by  an  entablature 
consisting  of  a  fillet  and  a  large  cavetto.  A  symbolical 
carving  (Fig.  26)  is  introduced  into  this  entablature 
and  repeated  over  every  doorway  in  the  interior  of  the 
temple,  namely  an  egg  or  globe  with  a  wing  at  each  side. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


109 


The  two  flanking  towers  of  the  pylons  have  each  an 
oblong  base,  the  longer  side  being  turned  towards  the 

front,  and  the  shorter  towards  the  inside  of  the  gateway 
(compare  Fig.  22).  They  are,  to  a  certain  extent,  pyram- 
idal in  shape,  inasmuch  as  the  external  surfaces  slope 
slightly  inwards  (see  profile  of  the  Pylon,  Fig.  25),  and 
consist  only  of  a  flat,  wall-like  surface,  adorned  through- 
out with  colored  sculpture  and  girt  with  astragals,  and 
of  an  entablature  formed  of  a  fillet  and  deeply-project- 
ing cavetto.    The  roof  of  these  constructions  is  flat. 


Fig.  26.   ENTABLATURE  OVER  DOOR-WAY  AT  THE  GREAT  TEM- 
PLE AT  PHILAE. 


They  contain  several  dark  rooms,  whose  object  is  un- 
certain. The  chief  aim  of  the  pylons  seems  to  have  been 
to  give  an  imposing  appearance  to  the  entrance.  To  this 
end  colossal  statues  and  obelisks  were  introduced  in 
front  of  the  pylons  (see  Fig.  25).  Obelisks  are  square 
diminishing  monumental  columns  capped  with  a  pyram- 
idal point.  On  festive  occasions  flagstaffs  were  hoisted 
from  the  pylons.  That  these  pylons  were  intended  mere- 
ly for  gates,  and  not  for  buildings  with  an  independent 
purpose,  may  be  assumed  from  the  small  proportion 
which  their  depth  bears  to  their  length.  They  were  gen- 
erally constructed  of  colossal  dimensions.  For  instance, 
the  first  pylon  at  the  Palace  of  Karnak  is  370  ft.  long  by 
48  ft.  deep. 


110  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

On  the  pylon  abuts  the  fore-court  with  corridors  (see 
Fig.  22  D)  with  rows  of  columns  (E)  either  at  the  two 
side  walls,  or  on  all  the  four  sides;  or  sometimes  only 
on  three.  On  these  columns  rest  cross-pieces  of  stone, 
which  form  an  architrave  and  support  the  roof-slabs  of 
the  area.  They  thus  form  a  kind  of  entablature,  which, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  pylons,  is  surrounded  by  an  astragal 
and  shaped  like  a  cornice  (Fig.  27). 

The  space  between  the  columns  is  generally  about  one 
and  a  half  time,  rarely  double,  the  diameter  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  shafts. 


Fig.  27.   CORNICE  ENTABLATURE  AT  THE  GREAT  TEMPLE  AT 

PHILAE. 


28.  Passing  through  the  colonnade  the  temple  (Fig. 
28)  is  reached;  in  no  instance  at  once  the  inner  sanctu- 
ary, but  other  initiatory  spaces,  which  invariably  occur: 
and,  firstly,  an  entrance-hall,  "the  polystyle  hall"  (Fig. 
22  F)  is  entered,  the  roof  of  which  is  supported  by  many 
columns,  and  then  follow  two  or  more  other  entrance- 
chambers,  which  all,  however,  appear  more  as  belong- 
ing to  the  structure  than  the  outer  area  does ;  for  temples 
of  tolerable  size  are  met  with  in  which  the  outer  areas 
are  wanting,  but  not  a  single  one  in  which  the  columnar 
entrance-halls  do  not  occur,  'the  columns  form  three 
or  four  rows,  the  rows  which  face  the  court  being  closed 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


111 


in  by  walls  of  about  half  the  height  of  the  columns,  and 
with  the  upper  part  crowned  in  the  manner  shown  by 


juiihiijIilMl' 


Fig.  28.  GREAT  TEMPLE  AT  THE  ISLAND  OF  PHILAE. 

Fig.  29.     The  columns  of  the  middle  rows  are  higher 
than  the  rest,  so  that  light  may  enter  through  the  side- 


stMIUff 


Fig.  29.  MOULDING  OF  THE  WALLS     PROFILE  OF  THE  SAME. 
BETWEEN  THE  COLUMNS  AT  THE 
GREAT  TEMPLE  AT  PHILAE. 


openings  between  the  higher  roof  of  the  central  nave 
and  the  lower  rows. 


112 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


To  the  many-pillared  entrance-chamber  succeeds  an- 
other, which  is  always  much  narrower,  hut  sometimes 
equally  rich  in  columns  (G).  Then  one  or  two  vestibules 
without  columns  are  reached,  and  then  finally  the  inner- 
most sanctuary,  which  is  only  accessible  by  one  entrance- 
door  (II).  This  sanctuary  is  always  small  and  totally 
dark,  and  xevy  rarely  contains  the  statue  of  a  god.  Ad- 
joining are  several  chambers,  probably  intended  for  the 
preservation  of  sacred  vessels  and  as  residences  for  the 
officiating  priests.  The  whole  of  the  hinder  portion  is 
surrounded  by  a  continuous  wall.     This  arrangement  of 


Fig.  30.     SECTION  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  CHENSU  AT  KARNAK. 


the  larger  temples  may  be  considered  as  the  prevalent 
type,  and  amongst  others  the  Temple  of  Edfu  (Pig.  22) 
offers  a  model  of  this  plan. 

Fig.  31  affords  another  example.  The  section,  Fie;. 
30,  which  belongs  to  the  same,  serves  to  illustrate  the 
proportionate  height  of  the  various  parts  of  the  interior 
of  a  temple  of  this  description. 

It  is  there  pointed  out  how,  both  through  elevation 
of  the  floor  and  depression  of  the  roof,  the  chambers  de- 
crease regularly  in  height  as  they  proceed  from  the 
front  to  the  back. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


113 


29.  The  serious,  solemn,  and  awe-inspiring  effect 
which  the  general  arrangement  of  the  temple  produces 
is  maintained  by  the  smaller  details,  while  the  slanting 
form  of  the  outer  walls  gives  the  temple  an  appearance 


CCCCCC 


EEC! 


Fig.  31.  GROUND-PLAN  OP  THE  TEMPLE  OP  CHENSU  AT 
KARNAK. 


of  solidity  and  isolation.  On  this  account,  and  especially 
owing  to  its  simple  unbroken  lines,  the  exterior,  although 
monotonous  and  heavy,  is  still  imposing.  The  chief  pecu- 
liarity in  the  construction  of  these  buildings  is  that  they 


Fig.  32.     BACK  VIEW  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  PHILAE. 


produce  the  effect  of  being  composed  of  an  agglomera- 
tion of  separate  parts,  which  resemble  one  another,  but 
become  smaller  and  smaller  towards  the  rear  of  the 
structure  (Fig.  32). 

The  walls  of  such  a  temple  are  covered  with  rows  of 
sculptures  painted  in  bright  colors,  and  which  are  sep- 


114 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


115 


arated  by  bands,  the  lower  rows  on  high  walls  being  of 
greater  breadth  than  the  upper.  The  interior  (Fig.  33) 
has  a  richer  appearance,  chiefly  owing  to  the  use  of  col- 
umns of  a  round  cylindrical  shape.  These  are,  moreover, 
of  the  most  varied  form,  and  without  exception  represent 
objects  drawn  from  the  vegetable  world. 


Pig.  34.   PILLAR  OF  THE 
TEMPLE  OF  EDFU. 


Fig.  35.   PILLAR  OF  THE 
PALACE  LUXOR. 


30.  The  shaft  is  sometimes  thick  and  sometimes  slen- 
der, but  never  diminishing.  Its  height  varies  from  3 
to  41/2  times  the  diameter  of  the  base,  or,  in  some  in- 
stances, even  5  to  5^  times.  This  shaft  is  occasionally 
smooth,  and  only  ornamented  above  and  below,  but  it  is 
generally  marked  off  by  horizontal  lines  into  divisions, 
which  are  covered  with  sculptures  and  hieroglyphic^ 
(Fig.  34).  It  often  consists  of  convex  bands  placed  ver- 
tically, which  resemble  a  bundle   of  thick  reeds,  and 


116 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


which  in  their  turn  are  surrounded  by  several  horizontal 
belts  (Fig.  35). 

The  shaft  almost  invariably  rests  on  a  circular  plinth 
as  a  base,  which  projects  more  or  less  in  different  in- 
stances. 

31.  The  capitals  of  the  columns  display  an  immense 
variety.  The  most  beautiful  have  a  crater-like  form,  and 
appear  like  the  projecting  bell  of  a  flower,  with  leaves 
standing  out  from  the  surface  (Fig.  37).    At  the  lower 


Fig.  36.   ORNAMENT  ON  THE 

LOWER  PART  OF  THE  CAPITALS 

IN  THE  TEMPLE  AT  EDFU. 


Fig.  37.   CAPITAL  IN  THE 
TEMPLE  AT  EDFU. 


part  of  the  capital  there  frequently  occurs  an  ornament 
of  diminishing  triangles,  resembling  the  sheath  from 
which  the  stalk  of  a  plant  springs  (Fig.  36).  The 
same  ornament  often  occurs  at  the  base  of  the  shaft,  and 
seems  to  a  certain  extent  borrowed  from  the  shape  of 
the  lower  portion  of  the  papyrus  plant  (Fig.  34).  Other 
capitals  imitate  an  unopened  bud  or  seed-pod,  as  in 
Fig.  35.  In  both  cases  the  lotus,  which  is  the  sacrod 
plant,  is  typified.  In  other  instances  (though  these  may 
perhaps  belong  to  a  later  period)  the  pillars  are  imita- 
tions of  a  palm  tree,  and  have  a  smooth  slender  shaft, 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


117 


a  neck-moulding  of  several  rings,  and  then,  without  any 
intermediate  architectural  division,  a  capital  formed  of 
the  graceful  leaves  of  the  palm  (Fig.  38).  In  some  tem- 
ples the  pillars  have,  in  lieu  of  capital,  the  face  of  a 
goddess,  probably  of  Isis,  with  a  drooping  sacerdotal 
hood,  and  supporting  a  temple  on  the  head  (Fig.  39). 
This  face  is  repeated  on  four  sides  of  the  circular  shaft. 
32.  In  Egyptian  architecture  the  structures  are  of 
stone.  The  coverings  of  the  apertures  as  well  as  of  the 
courts  were  effected  by  immense  blocks  of  stone  laid 
horizontally  to  which  form  of  construction  the  wealth 


Fig.  38.   CAPITAL  IN  THE 
TEMPLE  AT  EDFU. 


Fig.  39.   CAPITAL  IN  THE 
TEMPLE  AT  DENDERAH. 


of  the  country  in  durable  kinds  of  stone  conduced.  An 
admirable  skill  was  called  forth  and  developed  through 
this  employment  of  stone,  which  was  for  the  most  part 
of  a  kind  laborious  to  work.  This  style  of  construction, 
operating  as  it  did  on  the  form  of  the  structures,  must 
have  exercised  an  influence  on  Egyptian  architecture 
generally,  inasmuch  as  short,  bulky,  closely-ranged  col- 
umns were  requisite  for  the  support  of  the  ponderous 
blocks  of  stone  which  formed  the  architraves  and  roof- 
beams. 


118 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


The  blocks  of  stone  which  form  the  architraves  do  not 
rest  immediately  on  the  capital,  but  on  a  quadrangular 
block  of  the  breadth  of  the  diameter  of  the  upper  part 
of  the  column.    The  columns  and  capitals  are  in  general 


w 


Fig.   40.      PROFILE  OF  A 

COLOSSAL  STATUE  ON  A 

PIER  AT  THE   PALACE 

AT   LUXOR. 


Fig.  41.      FRONT  VIEW  OF 
COLOSSAL  STATUE. 


not  uniform,  but  recur  in  symmetrical  succession.  Their 
unity  is  preserved  by  the  harmony  of  the  lines  for  the 
horizontal  divisions  in  the  decorations  of  the  shaft,  as 
well  as  the  upper  and  lower  lines  of  the  neck  and  the 
capital  have  always  a  uniform  height. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


119 


33.  Instead  of  columns  square  piers  are  not  unfre- 
quently  introduced  in  the  tombs.  In  structural  buildings 
they  only  occur  in  connection  with  colossal  statues;  in 
which  case  the  pier  supports  the  roof,  and  the  statue, 
while  connected  with  the  pier  at  the  back,  has  its  head 
free,  without  supporting  anything  (Figs.  40  and  41). 

34.  These  human  figures  on  the  square  piers  are 
three  or  four  times  the  size  of  life,  but  are  perfectly 
uniform  height,  features,  and  attitude;  they  are  in- 
variably in  a  standing  posture,  the  head  is  decked  with 
the  lofty  priestly  tiara,  while  the  only  covering  of  the 


Fig.   42.       MURAL  FRIEZE-LIKE  DECORATION  FROM  THE  TEMPLE 
OF    ESNEH. 


body  is  the  Egyptian  apron  round  the  loins.  In  the  right 
hand  is  the  mystic  token  of  the  Nile-key,  in  the  form  of  a 
cross,  with  a  handle  at  the  upper  part;  both  arms  are 
crossed  over  the  breast  or  hang  close  by  the  side ;  the  feet 
are  either  parallel  and  close  to  one  another,  or  with  one 
slightly  projecting;  and  the  arched  breast  is  rendered 
prominent  by  the  upright  position. 

35.  To  the  multiplicity  of  form  is  added  the  varia- 
tion of  bright  coloring.  The  stone  is  never  suffered  to 
retain  its  natural  tint  either  inside  or  outside  the  build- 


120 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Kig.  43.     MURAL  DECORATION  WITH  HIEROGLYPHICS  FROM  THE 
GREAT   TEMPLE   AT   PHILAE. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


121 


ing.  Everywhere  it  is  covered  with  sculptures  and  orna- 
ments, plastered  with  stucco,  and  painted  in  bright 
colors,  which  have  lasted  unchanged  to  the  present  day. 
These  sculptures  consist  mostly  of  rows  of  sitting  or 
standing  profile  figures  in  similar  or  nearly  similar  posi- 
tions, either  following  each  other  as  in  a  procession,  or 
fronting  each  other  in  the  attitude  of  worship  or  conse- 
cration.    Groups  of  this  sort  are  repeated  symmetrically 


Fig.  44.   ORNAMENT  AT  THE  FOOT  OF  THE  WALL  FROM  THE 
GREAT  TEMPLE  AT  PHILAE. 


on  the  walls  on  both  sides,  and  have  a  direction  towards. 
or  at  any  rate  a  reference  to,  the  center.  They  are 
generally  of  smaller  dimensions  in  the  interior,  so  that 
the  walls  or  columns  of  the  same  chamber  contain 
several  rows  of  such  representations.  Between  and  over 
them  are  often  found  ornamented  bands  like  friezes 
(Figs.  42  and  43),  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  walls,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  columns,  are  introduced  more  decora- 
tions,  representing  lotus-plants    (Fig.   44). 


122  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

Architectural  unity  was  not  essentially  disturbed  by 
the  confusion  of  the  sculptures,  although  the  Egyptians 
laid  on  their  colors  in  bald  and  heavy  tints,  without  a 
knowledge  of  blending,  toning,  or  shading. 

36.  Another  element  in  Egyptian  monuments  which 
is  worthy  of  study  is  the  hieroglyphics  (Fig.  43),  which 
mean,  literally,  sacred  sculptures,  and  that  not  only  be- 
cause the  condition  and  direction  of  architecture  are 
thence  to  be  learnt,  but  because  also  of  the  historical 
disclosures  which  they  bring  about.  Modern  research 
has  succeeded  in  deciphering  many  of  them,  and  also  in 
gaining  a  satisfactory  insight  into  the  whole  graphic 
system  of  the  Egyptians.  These  hieroglyphic  writings 
are  of  two  kinds.  The  first  is  when  single  signs  express 
entire  ideas.  In  the  other  kind,  which  was  much  more 
frequently  used,  the  signs  express  only  single  letters,  or 
rather  sounds,  namely,  always  the  initial  letter  with 
which  the  designated  object  began.  This  sort  of  hiero- 
glyphic is  called  the  phonetic. 

Both  kinds  are  intermingled  in  the  inscriptions,  but, 
in  order  that  no  ambiguity  of  interpretation  may  be 
possible,  the  signs  which  served  as  conceptions  were  not 
used  as  phonetic  hieroglyphics. 

Not  only  natural  objects  were  chosen  as  hieroglyphic 
signs,  but  geometrical  figures,  such  as  squares,  circles, 
ovals  and  lines  of  various  kinds,  both  simple  and  double, 
also  often  occur.  Articles,  pronouns  and  prepositions, 
as  well  as  gender  and  number,  were  principally  ex- 
pressed by  these  geometrical  signs.  No  settled  law  was 
followed  in  the  distribution  of  hieroglyphic  writing. 
Whether  it  is  to  be  read  from  right  to  left  or  vice  versa, 
must  be  gathered  from  the  direction  in  which  the  heads 
of   the   animals   therein  represented   are   turned.      The 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


123 


vowels  were  omitted  for  the  sake  of  brevity.  Besides 
hieroglyphics,  the  Egyptians  possessed  a  form  of  writ- 
ing which  was  employed  by  the  priests,  as  also  a  current 
popular  form;  neither  of  these,  however,  need  be  taken 
into  consideration  here,  since  hieroglyphics  were  ap- 
plied to  architecture.  As  regards  the  meaning  of  the 
inscriptions,  the  expectation  of  important  disclosures 
and  discoveries  was  disappointed,  for  they  are  generally 
only  records  of  a  religious  ritual ;  in  the  case  of  the 
mummies  they  are  always  funeral  prayers,  and  in  the 


Pig.  45.      SMALL  TEMPLE  IN  THE  ISLAND  OF  ELEPHANTINE. 

case  of  the  monuments,  eulogies  and  forms  of  consecra- 
tion of  the  prince  by  whose  order  they  were  constructed. 

37.  Besides  the  temples  the  designs  of  which  have 
already  been  described,  another  form  of  temple  exists 
which  are  called  Typhons. 

They  consist  of  a  simple  house  in  the  shape  of  an  ob- 
long square,  which  has  the  entrance  on  the  shorter  side, 
and  two  or  three  consecutive  chambers  in  the  interior; 
whilst  a  colonnade  surrounds  all  the  four  sides  of  the 
exterior   (Fig.  45).     At  the  corners,  however,  of  this 


124 


EASY  LESSONS  IN    ARCHITECTURE 


colonnade,  columns  did  no1  occur,  1ml  only  simple  piers 
of  masonry  without  a  capital  or  entablature,  so  that  the 
columns,  which  arc  thus  shut  in  by  the  wall-work,  do 
not  form  an  uninterrupted  colonnade.  The  space  be- 
tween the  columns  on  the  narrow  side  is  considerably 
smaller  than  that  on  the  longer.  There  are  in  conse- 
quence only  two  columns  between  the  masonry  piers  on 
the  narrow  side,  whilst  in  the  longer  sides  generally  six, 
hut  sometimes  as  many  as  nine,  columns  are  introduced. 


Fig.    46.       FACADE    OF    THE    LITTLE    TEMPLE    AT    ELEPHANTINE. 


The  whole  temple  stands  on  a  perpendicular  sub- 
structure, the  outline  of  which  is  only  broken  in  the 
middle  of  the  smaller  frontside  by  a  flight  of  sleps 
which  leads  up  to  the  entrance  into  the  building  (Pig. 
46).  The  columns  are  besides  throughout  connected  with 
;i  wall  about  half  the  height  of  the  shaft  fas  in  the  case 
of  the  polystyle  entrance-halls),  and  ;i  break  in  the  con- 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


125 


tinuity  of  the  same  only  occurs  in  the  interval  between 
the  middle  columns  of  the  Eronl  of  the  edifice  where  a 
door,  corresponding  1"  the  flight  of  steps,  takes  the  place 
of  this  wall. 


Fig.    47.      EXTRAXCE-HALL     OF     THE     ROCK-TEMPLE     AT     IPSAM 

BOUL. 


These  temples  possess  in  every  respect  a  purely 
Egyptian  form.  The  external  walls  are  u  it,  however, 
slanting,  but  entirely  perpendicular,  as  was  necessitated 


126         EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

by  the  mural  connection  of  the  pillars.  It  is  neverthe- 
less probable  that  this  kind  of  temple  is  of  later  date, 
and  they  are  only  found  as  subsidiary-buildings  in  con- 
nection with  the  larger  temples. 

38.     The   arrangement   of   the   excavated   structures 
corresponds  with  that  of  the  temples. 


r        •'•      "■'       -1'      iO 

Fig.   48.      GROUND-PLAN   OF   THE    ROCK-TEMPLE   AT   IPSAMBOUL. 


In  most  rock-temples  a  court,  which  is  sometimes 
open  and  sometimes  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  or  a  covered 
vestibule  forms  the  entrance,  which  opens  into  an  en- 
trance-hall, with  smaller  chambers  beyond,  in  which  pil- 
lars or  columns  are  introduced  according  to  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  case.  The  ground-floor  (Fig.  48)  and  the 
section  (Fig.  49)  of  the  rock-temple  at  Ipsamboul  il- 
lustrate this  construction.  In  the  latter  figure  is  seen 
one  of  the  four  sitting  colossal  statues  which  are  hewn 
out  of  the  rock  in  front  of  the  entrance,  and  which  at- 
tain a  height  of  68V2  feet.    Fig.  47  gives  a  perspective 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


127 


view  of  the  entrance-hall,  in  which  are  seen  eight  stand- 
ing colossal  statues  33  feet  high,  supported  by  square 
piers.  Fig.  50  gives  a  view  of  the  entrance  with  the 
colossal  statues.  The  larger  rock-tombs  have  a  similar 
arrangement :  the  vestibule  is  generally  open  to  the  air, 
then  more  or  less  halls  and  chambers,  and  finally  narrow 
passages  issuing  from  them,  in  which  are  placed  the 
mummy-cases  in  well-like  recesses. 


?'^,»?^^'?\:v 


Fig.     49.      SECTION  OF  THE  ROCK-TEMPLE  AT  IPSAMBOUL. 


39.  In  essential  particulars  the  palaces  are  adorned 
and  arranged  in  the  same  way  as  the  temples,  with  the 
exception  that  in  their  case  the  successive  steps  to  the 
inner  sanctuarram  are  not  so  clearly  marked,  and  that 
the  whole  space  with  its  entrance-courts  and  many-pil- 
lared halls  is  surrounded  by  a  continuous  wall.  Fig. 
51  may  perhaps  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the  design  of 
these  palaces,  which  were  executed  with  the  utmost 
magnificence. 


128 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


An  avenue  of  crio-sphinxes,  810  feet  Long,  and  in  con- 
tinuation of  the  same  a  road,  which  passed  through  four 
pylons  erected  at  various  intervals,  leads  in  an  oblique 
direction  of  the  side  entrance  of  the  palace  (Fig.  51X). 
On  the  contrary  the  main  entrance  leads  through  a  co- 
lossal pylon  to  a  court  (A)  surrounded  by  colonnades, 
and  which  is  332  feet  long  by  269  feet  broad,  and  in- 


Fig.    50. 


ENTRANCE     TO      THE      ROCK-TEMPLE     AT      IPSAMBOUL 
WITH  COLOSSAL   STATUES  IN   FRONT. 


terseeted  at  one  side  by  a  temple  let  in  obliquely  by 
Rameses  III. ;  while  through  a  second  pylon  the  mag- 
nificent pillared  hall  (B)  is  reached.  This  hall  is 
170  feet  long  by  332  feet  broad,  and  its  roof  is  sup- 
ported in  the  middle  by  12  columns  75  feet  hi<rh,  and 
by  122  lesser  columns,  which  are  divided  into  seven 
rows. 


GAS'S  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


129 


Pig.  52  shows  how  tlm  middle  passage  is  made  more 
imposing  by  this  arrangemenl  of  elevating  the  columns 
in  the  middle,  and  how  at  the  same  time  a  moans  is  con- 
trived of  lighting  the  whole  hall  by  the  raised  side- 
lights. A  pillarless  court  (C)  leads  from  this  hall  to  a 
fourth   pylon.     Between  the   two  stand  two  enormous 


Fig.   51.      GROUND-PLAN  OP  THE  PALACE  AT  KARNAK. 


obelisks.  The  following  chamber  (D)  is  equally  an  open 
chamber  surrounded  with  statues  in  connection  with 
piers,  and  in  it  also  two  obelisks  were  erected.  A  small- 
er open  court  leads  thence  through  other  pylons  to 
chambers  (E)  and  the  sanctuary,  surrounded  by  nai- 
leries and  small  columns;  while  at  the  extreme  end  of 
the  whole  construction  at  the  end  of  the  open  space  be- 
yond the  sanctuary  is  a  small  columnar  temple  (F). 


130 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.   52.      SECTION   OF  THE   HALL  OF  THE   PALACE  OF   KARNAK. 


WEST-ASIATIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

40.  We  possess  but  scanty  information  regarding  the 
art  of  the  ancient  races  of  Western  Asia,  and  the  re- 
mains of  their  monuments  which  have  been  preserved  to 
our  own  times  are  few  and  insignificant.  Through  the 
excavations  and  researches  of  quite  recent  times,  how- 
ever, an  entirely  new  field  has  been  opened  out,  which, 
although  poor  in  architectural  remains,  properly  so 
called,  gives  an  interesting  insight  into  the  colossal  con- 
structions of  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  owing  to  the  numer- 
ous sculptured  representations  which  have  been  discov- 
ered, and  the  deciphering  of  inscriptions  written  in  the 
cuneiform  character. 


BABYLONIAN     ( CHALDEAN)     AND    ASSYRIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

41.  Babylonian  buildings  belong  to  an  epoch  pre- 
vious to  the  year  1400  b.  c,  after  which  period  their 
subsequent  development  was  checked  by  the  growth  of 
the  more  powerful  kingdom  of  Assyria.    The  most  con- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  131 

siderable  architectural  activity  did  not  occur  till  the 
epoch  of  the  monuments  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  viz.  about 
600  B.  c.  Both  these  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  build- 
ings were  constructed  of  baked  or  unbaked  bricks,  which 
were  not  calculated  to  be  durable ;  and  this  is  the  reason 
that  we  now  possess  no  well-preserved  monuments,  but 
only  rubbish-mounds  of  old  building  materials,  which 
still,  however,  by  their  vast  extent  bear  witness  to  the 
compass  and  greatness  of  the  towns  of  Nineveh,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Mosul,  and  of  Babylon,  near  the  modern 
Bagdad ;  at  which  places,  according  to  the  description 
of  ancient  Greek  writers  and  quite  recent  investigation, 
structures  must  have  been  erected  on  a  gigantic  scale. 
The  latest  excavations  of  the  Assyrian  ruins  of  Nim- 
roud,  Khorsabad,  and  Koyundschick,  near  Mosul,  and 
which  are  for  the  most  part  ascribed  to  the  old  town  of 
Nineveh,  have  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  royal  pal- 
aces, which  united  formed  a  kind  of  citadel,  as  well  as 
the  temples,  were  erected  on  artificially  raised  mounds  or 
terraces.  These  terraces  were  not,  however,  constructed 
of  embankments  of  earth,  but  of  clay-bricks  regularly 
dried  in  the  sun,  while  natural  elevations  of  the  soil 
were  taken  advantage  of  to  form  these  superstructural 
ramparts.  In  this  way  platforms  of  from  30  to  40  feet 
high  were  reared,  on  which  the  real  building  was  subse- 
quently erected.  In  the  buildings  themselves  unburnt 
bricks  were  in  a  great  measure  employed ;  the  walls  con- 
sequently have  a  thickness  of  from  5  to  15  feet.  They 
were  reveted  both  on  the  inside  and  the  out  with  ala- 
baster or  limestone  slabs,  on  which  were  engraved  bas- 
reliefs  and  inscriptions  in  the  cuneiform  character  (Fig. 
53).  In  the  exterior,  freestone  was  also  employed  for 
the  lower  parts  of  the  coping.    In  the  interior  the  walls 


132 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


consisted,  above  the  line  of  the  reveting  slabs,  which 
reached  a  height  of  from  9  to  12  feet,  of  richly-painted 
burnt  or  unburnt  bricks,  coated  with  stucco  painted 
with  various  kinds  of  ornamentation.  In  some  instances 
the  entire  walls  are  covered  with  painted  stucco,  with- 
out any  facing  of  slabs. 


■m  th   t  -v  *  rc  «  i  « 


Fig.   53.      CUNEIFORM  WRITING. 


Another  kind  of  mural  casing,  especially  in  external 
walls,  was  effected  by  driving  conical  terra-cotta  studs 
about  3V->  inches  long  into  the  surface  of  the  wall  on 


mm 


%glF 


Fig.  54.      WALL-MOSAIC  FROM  THE  TERRACE  RUINS  AT  WORKHA. 

which  convex  mouldings  had  been  formed.  The  pointed 
ends  of  these  studs,  which  were  of  various  colors,  white, 
red,  black,  &c,  were  imbedded  in  clay  which  had  been 
worked  up  with  chaff,  and  the  broader  bases  of  the  cones 
wei*e  made  to  form  simple  ornamental  patterns  of  al- 
ternating colors  on  the  exterior,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  54. 
42.  The  excavations  at  Nineveh,  although  of  great 
importance  for  the  attainment  of  a  knowledge  of  the  de- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


133 


sign  of  Assyrian  buildings  and  the  condition  of  art, 
have  afforded  no  definite  information  regarding  the  ar- 
chitectural appearance  of  their  structures  as  a  mass. 
We  are  able  to  determine  anything  definite  about  one 
branch  only,  and  that  is  the  decorative.  This  we  are 
enabled  to  do  by  the  many  specimens  which  have  been 


Fig.  55.   PART  OF  A  PAVEMENT-SLAB  IN  THE  NORTH  PALACE 
AT  KOYUNDSCHICK. 


discovered.  The  most  interesting  point  under  this  head 
is  a  certain  accordance  with  the  Grecian  style  of  decora- 
tion, as  is  shown  by  Figs.  55  and  56.  The  latter  of 
these  represents  an  ornament  which  occurs  very  fre- 
quently on  vessels  and  drapery,  but  which  is  also  used 
in  mural  decorations,  and  by  comparing  it  will  be  ob- 


134 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


served  what  a  marked  affinity  exists  between  the  Grecian 
and  Assyrian  patterns.  Since,  however,  it  is  not  the  ob- 
ject of  this  volume  to  enter  into  any  critical  investiga- 
tions, but  only  to  characterize  and  point  out  peculiarities 
of  style,  and  only  to  admit  artistic  assertions  when  they 
are  definitely  allowed  and  established,  it  must  be  left 
an  open  question  whether  in  these  productions  of  Assy- 
ria and  West- Asia  generally,  a  germ  is  not  visible  of 
many  forms  which  the  Greeks,  with  their  keen  eye  for 
the  beautiful,  subsequently  borrowed,  and  expanded  in 
accordance  with  their  own  more  advanced  rules  of  art; 


Fig.    56.      GUILLOCHE     ORNAMENT     PAINTED     ON     BURNT     CLAY, 
FROM    THE    RUINS    OF    NINEVEH. 


or  whether  on  the  other  hand  it  is  not  more  probable 
that  these  forms  had  their  original  home  in  Greece,  and 
from  thence  made  their  entrance  into  Assyria.  The 
former  of  these  views  is  supported  by  a  comparison  of 
Fig.  57  with  a  Grecian  griffin  and  by  the  fact  that  these 
forms  were  features  of  Assyrian  buildings  before  the 
Persian  conquest,  i.  e.  before  the  sixth  century  b.  c. 

The  accompanying  drawings  are  only  intended,  in  the 
total  absence  of  all  authentic  records  of  the  main  archi- 
tectural principles,  to  give  at  least  an  insight  into  the 
style  of  ornamentation,  as  far  as  it  is  possible  to  convey 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


135 


any  idea  from  the  few  specimens  which  have  as  yet  been 
discovered. 

43.  One  peculiarity  is  visible  in  all  Assyrian  build- 
ings, namely,  that  all  the  chambers  are  very  narrow  in 
proportion  to  their  length.  Nothing  definite  is  known  of 
the  manner  of  constructing  the  roof,  and  views  on  this 
subject  are  much  at  variance.  It  may,  however,  be  ac- 
cepted as  established  that  the  chambers  were  in  general 


Fig.   57. 


SCULPTURED  GRIFFIN  FROM  THE  SCULPTURES  IN  THE 
RUINS  OF  NINEVEH. 


lighted  by  windows,  which  were  inserted  in  the  walls 
either  high  up  or  immediately  under  the  roof,  and  that 
only  large  halls  received  their  light  from  above  through 
openings  in  the  roof.  The  dwelling-houses  which  are 
represented  in  the  sculptures,  show  at  least  traces  of 
these  windows  let  into  the  upper  part  of  the  walls. 

44.  Colossal  winged-bulls  or  lions  with  human  heads 
form  the  main  entrance  into  the  halls,  where  battles, 
victories,  triumphal  entries,  hunting  scenes,  and  relig- 
ious ceremonies  and  processions  were  engraved  on  the 


136 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


[MM-.++J, 1 — j — 36  M  myz*  &••   -L-i 


Fig.  58.      GROUND-PLAN  OF  THE   NORTH-WEST  PALACE  OF  NIM 

ROUD. 


Fig.      59.      WINGED-BULL  FROM   NIMROUD. 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECT  EKE 


137 


slabs  of  the  casing,  and  painted  in  the  most  brilliant 
colors.  Over  these  sculptures  were  painted  other  royal 
acts  of  the  king  surrounded  by  his  eunuchs  and  warriors, 
and  these  representations  were  in  their  turn  surrounded 
by  an  ornamental  border,  in  which  winged-bulls  and 
monstrous  beasts,  as  well  as  the  sacred  tree,  principally 
figured  (Fig.  60). 

At  the  top  of  the  walls  the  roof  was  probably  con- 
structed of  wooden  beams,  divided  into  coffers  by 
wainscoting,  which  were  painted  with  flowers  or  ani- 
mals, or  inlaid  with  ivory.  Graceful  borders  and  cor- 
ner-pieces surrounded  each  division.  The  brilliancy  of 
the  chambers  was  increased  by  employing  rare  woods 
and  coatings  of  metals,  especially  gilding. 


60.      SCULPTURED      ORNAMENTAL      BORDER      FROM      THE 
RUINS   OP  NINEVEH. 


All  the  buildings  that  have  hitherto  been  discovered 
in  Assyria  have  precisely  the  same  character,  so  that  in 
all  probability  the  palaces  and  temples  were  united  in 
one  building:  for  the  deeds  of  the  king  and  nation  are 
therein  associated  with  the  symbols  of  religion  and  the 
statues  of  the  gods.  It  may  be  accepted  as  a  general 
principle  that  it  was  not  the  temple,  or  the  building 
destined  for  worship,  which  formed  in  Babylonian,  As- 
syrian, and  the  Persian  architecture  which  is  to  be  de- 


138  EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 

scribed  hereafter,  the  most  important  and  distinctive 
element  of  the  style,  as  it  did  in  the  case  of  other  culti- 
vated races;  but  rather  that  it  was  the  palace  of  their 
despots  which  enjoyed  a  paramount  importance  in  the 
minds  of  those  races.  The  building  destined  for  worship 
was  only  to  be  distinguished  by  a  pyramidal  terrace- 
like substructure,  whilst  the  structure  of  the  temple 
itself  was  by  no  means  in  accordance  with  the  com- 
manding position  which  raised  it  above  the  whole  sur- 
rounding district :  raised  palaces  were  also  erected  on 
terrace-shaped  substructures.  One  especially  distinctive1 
mark,  however,  of  temple-terraces  was  this,  that  they 
were  covered  with  glazed  tiles  in  such  a  way  that  each 
platform  had  a  distinct  color. 

45.  No  trace  of  the  column  is  to  be  found  in  Assy- 
rian ruins.  That  columns  were  not,  however,  unknown 
to  the  Assyrians  is  proved  by  two  which  are  represented 
in  the  older  sculptures  of  Nineveh,  as  supporting  a  kind 
of  pavilion. 

The  total  absence  of  shafts  and  capitals  in  Assyrian 
ruins,  as  well  as  the  insignificant  breadth  of  the  cham- 
bers in  proportion  to  the  length  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  independent  columns  were  not  used  as  main  sup- 
ports. On  the  supposition  of  a  wooden  roof  to  the 
chambers  this  might,  it  is  true,  have  been  supported 
by  wooden  posts,  but  such  a  presumption  is  difficult  to 
reconcile  with  the  otherwise  massive  character  of  the 
structure. 

46.  One  of  the  Babylonian  buildings,  the  Temple  of 
Baal  or  Belus,  which  is  known  in  the  Bible  under  the 
name  of  the  Tower  of  Babel,  was  a  pyramidal  structure 
(•(insisting  of  eight  stories,  and  was  600  feet  broad  at 
each  side  of  the  base,  and  also  600  feet  high.     In  the 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


139 


top  story  was  a  large  temple.  A  staircase  winding 
round  the  eight  stories  led  to  the  temple  and  also  to  the 
interior  of  the  building. 

The  appearance  of  one  of  these  terraced  pyramidal 
structures  is  shown  by  a  Relief  from  Koyundschick 
(Fig.  61),  which  unfortunately  has  not  been  preserved 
complete.  It  there  is  represented  as  rising  on  a  mound- 
shaped  substructure,  on  which  two  paths  are  marked 
out,  and  in  which  an  entrance-gate  is  introduced,  which 
reminds  one  in  miniature  of  the  gigantic  Egyptian 
temple-gates  or  pylons.     On  this  substructure  rests  a 


Fig.    61.      TERRACE-PYRAMID.         RELIEF     FROM     KOYUNDSCHICK. 


terrace  supported  by  buttresses,  and  on  that  again  a 
second  with  an  entrance-gate,  and  then  a  third  with  a 
quite  narrow  entrance,  and  lastly  a  fourth  terrace, 
whose  termination  the  delineation  leaves  doubtful. 

47.     The  other  monuments,  known  to  us,  date  from 
the  later  times  of  the  Chaldeo-Babylonian  kingdom,  the 
-most  nourishing  period  of  which  was  during  the  reign 
of  Nebuchadnezzar,  about  600  b.  c.  The  celebrated  hang- 
ing gardens  of  Semiramis  belong  to  this  epoch.     Prob- 


140 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


ably  these  were  terraces  disposed  in  stages  one  above  the 
other,  so  that  each  formed  ;t  garden-plateau. 

No  elue  is  Left  amidst  the  numerous  masses  of  ruins, 
by  which  the  style  of  these  structures  can  be  determined. 


Fig. 


62.      PILLAR  OF  A  TABLE  IN 
AN  ASSYRIAN   RELIEF. 


Fig.  63. 


Still,  however,  the  bas-reliefs  which  have  brought  to 
light  present  much  that  is  worthy  of  note.  Figs.  62,  63, 
and  64,  amongst  others,  bring  out  prominently  the  sim- 
ilarity of  many  details  with  Grecian  art.    Fig.  62,  rep- 


Fig.  64. 


Fig.    65.      CAPITALS   AND    BASE   OF 
A   COLUMN   IN   A   BAS-RELIEF 
FROM  KOYUNDSCHICK. 


resenting  the  pillar  of  a  table,  bears  a  strong  resemblance 
to  an  Ionic  capital  as  displayed  in  Asia  Minor.  Other 
reliefs  portray  small  facades  of  temples  with  capitals 
like  Figs.  63  and  64,  and  of  these  Fig.  63  shows  an  af- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


141 


finity,  although  it  be  a  remote  one,  with  the  Corinthian 
capital.  A  base  is  shown  in  Pig.  65.  In  the  fragment 
of  a  relief  from  Koyundschick  columns  occur  which  rest 
on  a  cushion-shaped  base  on  a  lion's  back,  just  as  is  the 
case  in  the  doorways  of  Gothic  churches  (Fig.  66). 

It  may  finally  be  mentioned  as  a  remarkable  peculiar- 
ity that,  totally  contrary  to  the  usual  belief  that  the 
semicircular  arch  was  applied  by  the  Etruscans  and  sub- 
sequently by  the  Romans,  arches  of  this  description  have 


-/VWWX 


Fig.  66.     PILLAR  ON  A  LIONS  BACK. 


been  found  represented  in  the  reliefs  of  the  ruins  of 
Nimroud,  and  that  it  thence  also  appears  that  the  point- 
ed arch  was  thus  early  employed  both  for  niches  and 
doors.  This  may  be  gathered  not  only  from  reliefs  in 
which  such  constructions  occur,  but  also  from  still  exist- 
ing arches  of  both  descriptions  applied  to  gate-ways  and 
vaulted  drains,  which  have  been  discovered,  although  the 
dimensions  of  the  same  are  but  small.  Although  the 
conclusion  cannot  positively  be  deduced  that  broader 
spaces  were  also  vaulted  over,  still  it  thence  appears  far 
from  improbable  that  chambers  may  have  had  arched 
roofs. 


142  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


PHOENICIAN  AND  ISRAELITISH  ARCHITECTURE. 

48.  "Whilst  at  best  heaps  of  ruins  alone  bear  witness 
to  the  existence  of  Babylonian  buildings,  the  fabrics  of 
the  Phoenicians  and  of  the  Jews  have  disappeared  with- 
out leaving  any  traces.  With  a  view,  however,  of  render- 
ing the  present  work  as  complete  as  possible,  mention 
must  be  made  of  those  of  their  considerable  buildings  of 
which  we  possess  a  knowledge;  so  that,  as  far  as  may 
be,  a  conception  may  be  formed  of  the  architecture  of 
those  remarkable  nations,  which  have  exercised  so  im- 
portant an  influence  on  European  civilization.  Of  the 
Phoenicians  we  only  know  in  general  terms  that  their 
cities  were  splendid  and  magnificent,  as  also  were  their 
colonies  of  Carthage  and  Gades,  of  which  equally  no 
remains  exist ;  and  that  wood  and  metals,  especially  gold, 
were  employed  in  covering  the  internal  walls,  and  that 
brass  was  used  for  columns. 

49.  Something  at  least  of  architecture  amongst  the 
Jews  may  be  gathered  from  the  Old  Testament:  and  it 
may  have  had  much  affinity  with  that  of  the  Phoenicians. 
As  early,  however,  as  the  Exodus  from  the  land  of 
Egypt,  1500  b.  c,  a  peculiar  architectural  development 
may  be  traced,  which  is  exemplified  by  the  description 
of  the  Tabernacle,  which  was  a  movable  temple- 
structure  shaped  like  a  tent,  Since  the  people  were 
continually  wandering  in  the  wilderness,  this  Tabernacle 
can  have  had  no  permanently  structural  character,  but 
was  composed  of  wooden  walls,  covered  with  gold 
plates.  Hangings  formed  the  roof,  and  divided  off  the 
Holy  Place,  and  the  richly  adorned  Ark  of  the  Cove- 
nant, The  Court  of  the  Tabernacle  was  surrounded  with 
hangings  and  brazen  pillars. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE         143 

50.  Solomon's  Temple  was  built  at  Jerusalem,  1000 
b.  c,  after  the  pattern  of  the  Tabernacle.     Tliix  temple 

was  destroyed  420  years  later,  at  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  subsequent- 
ly, on  the  return  from  captivity  under  Cyrus  and 
Darius,  was  rebuilt  by  the  Jews  from  about  536  to 
515  b.  a,  in  probably  the  same  style  as  the  former 
temple. 

Herod  the  Great  had  this  temple  pulled  down,  and 
in  b.  c.  20  caused  a  new  and  magnificent  temple  to  be 
erected,  which  in  a.  d.  73,  at  the  time.of  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  experienced  the  same  fate  as 
the  former  one.  Herod's  building  was,  it  is  true,  in 
accordance  with  the  main  plan  of  the  former  temple, 
but  was  executed  in  the  then  prevailing  Grecian  style. 

51.  Regarding  Solomon's  Temple  we  know  that  it 
was  of  small  size,  that  the  material  was  a  combination 
of  stone  and  wood,  and  that  the  fabric  rested  on  strong 
foundation  walls  of  blocks  of  stone.  The  building  had 
two  outer  courts,  the  exterior  one  for  the  people,  and 
the  interior,  which  lay  somewhat  higher,  for  the  priests. 
In  the  court  were  dwelling-places  for  the  Levites  and 
door-keepers.  The  actual  temple  consisted  of  the  outer 
hall,  or  Holy  Place,  and  of  the  Holy  of  Holies.  On 
both  sides  of  the  building,  and  also  at  the  back,  was  a 
side  building,  which  was  a  third  lower  than  the  main 
building,  and  contained  chambers  disposed  in  three 
stories  one  over  the  other.  The  walls  were  of  stone,  but 
the  interior  was  entirely  covered  with  lining  of  cedar- 
wood.  Beams  of  cedar  formed  the  roof,  and  beams  of 
cypress  the  floor.  All  this  woodwork  was  adorned  with 
carving  at  the  doors  and  windows;  the  devices  repre- 
sented palms,  cherubim,  and  coloquints,  and  were  over- 


144  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

laid  with  gold.  In  the  Holy  Place  stood  the  altar  of 
burnt  incense,  the  table  for  shewbread,  and  five  golden 
seven-branched  candlesticks.  At  the  upper  part  were 
let  in  lattice-shaped  windows,  which  probably  answered 
the  purpose  of  carrying  off  the  smoke  of  the  incense. 
A  wall  of  cedar  and  hangings  divided  this  place  from 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  in  which  stood  the  wooden  Ark  of 
the  Covenant,  overlaid  with  gold  both  inside  and  out- 
side. At  the  side  of  it  were  two  immense  cherubim, 
carved  from  wild  olive  wood,  and  also  overlaid  with 
gold.  No  reliable  details  can  be  given  of  the  exterior. 
The  actual  temple  probably  rose  higher  than  the  courts 
and  side  buildings.  No  columns  surrounded  the  temple. 
At  the  entrance  of  the  courts,  however,  stood  the  two 
celebrated  pillars,  Jachin,  i.  e.,  firm,  and  Boaz,  strong; 
made  of  cast  brass,  and  which  probably  possessed  a 
symbolical  meaning. 

52.  Owing  to  the  utter  want  of  all  representations 
nothing  definite  can  be  adduced  regarding  the  style  of 
this  temple  or  of  Jewish  architecture  generally.  The 
sole  relic  of  the  temple  which  has  endured  till  our  days, 
consists  of  part  of  a  foundation  constructed  of  large 
blocks  of  stone  in  the  Roman  fashion,  and  it  may  con- 
sequently be  attributed  to  the  last  temple,  which  was 
executed  in  the  time  of  the  supremacy  of  Rome,  al- 
though, judging  by  comparison  with  similar  stone 
foundations  in  Assyrian  ruins,  the  date  might  be  set 
down  as  a  much  earlier  one. 

That  no  employment  of  Egyptian  models  occurred, 
as  many  have  believed,  may  be  determined  by  the 
heterogeneous  nature  of  the  materials  employed;  and 
indeed  the  whole  design  of  the  temple  gives  no  evidence 
of  any  direct  connection  with  Egyptian  architecture. 


EASY   LESSONS  IN   ARCHITECTURE  145 

Egyptian    architecture    has    essentially    stone    as   its 

basis;  and  the  heavy  beams  of  stone  required  many 
supports  of  stone,  i.  c,  columns.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  extensive  beams  of  wood  rendered  columns  unneces- 
sary amongst  the  Jews.  Then  again,  the  universal  em- 
ployment of  glittering  metal  and  costly  wood  leads  to 
the  conclusion  that  amongst  the  Jews  there  was  no 
prevalent  aesthetic  taste  for  noble  forms,  as  was  the 
case  amongst  the  Egyptians,  but  that  a  luxurious  love 
of  ostentatious  display  obtained  amongst  them,  which 
was  more  in  accordance  with  Phoenician  than  Egyptian 
art. 

The  Jewish  tombs,  which  still  exist  around  Jerusa- 
lem, are  either  sepulchers  hewn  in  the  rock  with  a 
chamber  in  front,  or  independent  structures  hewn  out 
of  the  rock,  as  has  been  seen  to  have  been  already  cus- 
tomary amongst  the  primitive  Indian  nations.  The 
bodies  were  disposed  in  these  sepulchers  in  the  same 
way  as  one  sees  in  the  catacombs  at  Rome,  either  rest- 
ing immediately  on  shelves  of  the  rock  in  the  surround- 
ing walls,  or  stowed  away  in  trough-like  recesses,  or  in 
holes  excavated  in  the  depth  of  the  rock  of  the  size  of 
the  human  contour.  The  sepulchers  have  a  kind  of 
facade,  or  merely  a  framework  and  setting  for  the 
stone  which  blocked  up  the  entrance.  Both  in  these 
caves  and  in  the  independent  structures  details  bor- 
rowed from  or  akin  to  Grecian  and  Roman  architecture 
are  perceptible:  for  instance,  Ionic  columns  and  Doric 
triglyphs;  it  may  therefore  be  taken  for  granted  that 
they  belong  to  the  later  period  of  the  Jewish  kingdom. 
The  sarcophagi  also,  which  have  been  discovered  in  the 
sepulchers,  show  a  Roman  or  Grecian  influence,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  established  Phoenician  style. 


146  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


MEDIAN  AND  PERSIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

53.  At  the  overthrow  of  the  Babylonian  kingdom, 
at  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  b.  c,  its  culture  and 
art  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Medes,  and  from  them 
in  turn  to  the  Persians,  when  that  people  freed  them 
from  Median  supremacy  in  the  sixth  century,  b.  c.  :  it 
is  therefore  easily  to  be  accounted  for,  if  considerable 
conformity  exists  between  Persian  and  Babylonian 
monuments,  both  as  regards  terrace-built  structures  and 
various  other  details. 

Religion  was  not  favorable  to  constructive  art 
amongst  the  Persians.  They  worshipped  Ormuzd  as  god 
of  light  and  good,  under  the  symbol  of  fire,  as  opposed 
to  Ahriman,  the  god  of  darkness,  and  promoter  of  evil. 
They  had  consequently  no  images,  and  they  had  also  no 
temples,  because  sacrifices  were  conducted  in  the  open 
air:  the  essential  element  was  therefore  wanting  for  the 
rise  and  development  of  constructive  art. 

54.  In  later  times,  however,  when  Egypt  and  the 
Greek  colonies  of  Asia  Minor  were  subjected  to  the  Per- 
sians, we  know  that  the  Persian  kings  employed  Egyp- 
tian and  Grecian  artists  in  building  their  palaces.  The 
monuments  which  have  been  preserved  to  us  show,  how- 
ever, a  peculiar  character  in  spite  of  every  imitation  of 
foreign  architecture.  Many  of  these  structures  belong, 
it  is  true,  to  the  fourth  century,  the  period  of  the  Sas- 
sanides,  but  considerable  remains  have  been  discovered 
dating  from  the  times  of  the  successors  of  Cyrus. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Murghab  are  those  of  Pasar- 
gada?,  a  town  founded  by  Cyrus,  where  was  the  burying- 
place  of  the  Persian  kings.  At  this  place  is  the  tomb  of 
Cyrus.    Seven  stages  form  a  pyramidal  building  40  feet 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


147 


high,  44  feet  long,  and  40  feet  broad  at  the  base,  and 
constructed  of  enormous  blocks  of  white  marble.  On 
the  topmost  surface  is  a  little  house  with  a  gable-shaped 
roof  of  marble,  in  which  formerly  stood  the  golden  cof- 
fin, surrounded  by  all  kinds  of  costly  vessels. 


\ 


tri'j 


Fig.  67.     VIEW  OF  THE  RUINS  OF  PERSEPOLIS. 


55.  The  most  important  monuments  of  Persian  art, 
besides  the  tombs  of  the  later  Persian  kings,  are  the 
magnificent  ruins  of  Chehil  Minar  (the  forty  pillars). 
They  are  remains  of  the  great  palaces  of  Persepolis, 
which  were  overthrown  by  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
rise  in  terraces  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Rachmed ;  they  are 
constructed  of  the  blackish-grey  marble  of  the  mountain 
itself,  and  are  1,400  feet  long  by  900  feet  broad.  Ac- 
cording to  the  modern  deciphering  of  the  inscriptions, 


148 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


these  palaces  were  built  partly  by  Xerxes,  and  partly 
by  Darius.  A  magnificent  double  staircase  runs  along 
the  walls  of  the  terrace  (Fig.  61),  and  leads  to  a  portal, 
on  the  entrance  piers  of  which  are  hewn  gigantic,  fanci- 
ful animal    forms,  resembling    the    Assyrian;    beyond 


i }\\ ijj 


Fig.   68.      ELEVATION  OF  PLATFORM 
AT  PASARGADAE. 


Fig.   G9.      CAPITAL    AND 
ENTABLATURE    FROM    THE 
ROCK-TOMB    OF   DARIUS. 


which,  colonnades  and  another  similar  staircase  conduct 
to  the  second  terrace,  on  which  are  found  the  remains 
of  large  polystyle  halls.  Ruins  of  other  considerable 
buildings  are  to  be  seen  close  by,  but  lying  rather  high- 
er; these  were  richly  adorned  with  bas-reliefs.  On  the 
third  terrace  are  situated  other  buildings  of  various  de- 
scriptions, as  also  colonnades,  the  walls  of  which  are 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE         140 

adorned  with  sculpture,  and  contain  smaller  chambers, 

which  possihly  constituted  the  habitable  rooms  of  the 
palace.  The  original  intention  of  other  large  ruins  close 
at  hand  cannot  be  conjectured.  The  whole  is  surround- 
ed hy  a  wall  which  abuts  on  the  rocks  which  lie  behind. 

56.  The  workmanship  of  the  white  marble  columns. 
and  of  the  large  squared  stones  which  are  joined  with- 
out cement,  shows  a  cultivated  skill  (Fig.  68).  The 
walls  are  covered  with  sculptures  and  inscriptions  in  the 
Persian  cuneiform  character;  those  which  have  already 
been  deciphered  betoken  the  forms  of  consecration  and 
titles  of  Darius  and  Xerxes.  The  columns  in  the  ruins 
of  Persepolis  are  circular  and  slender,  and  have  capitals 
and  bases.  The  capital  generally  consists  of  two  half- 
horses  or  bulls,  whose  fore  feet  overlap  the  border  of 
the  shaft,  and  which  are  placed  back  to  back  (Fig.  69). 
Probably  a  beam  was  inserted  between  their  necks, 
which  served  as  a  support  for  the  real  transverse  roof- 
beams  laid  upon  it.  Other  capitals  are  more  compact 
(Figs.  70  and  71),  where  from  the  lower  part,  which  is 
in  the  shape  of  a  globular  vessel,  rises  a  slender  cup, 
supporting  a  lofty  member  with  double  volutes  or  scrolls 
on  the  four  sides,  which  correspond  with  those  of  the 
Grecian  Ionic  capitals  (Fig.  72).  but  which  are  intro- 
duced not  horizontally  but  perpendicularly.  The  base 
consists  of  fillets  and  a  leaf-covered  torus  resting  on  a 
circular  plinth. 

The  columns  have  fine  flutings  and  stand  tolerably 
far  apart  from  each  other,  from  six  to  seven  times  the 
diameter,  and  consequently  have  a  very  light  appear- 
ance. The  entablature,  of  which  nothing  has  been  pre- 
served, was  probably  of  wood.  To  judge  by  the  exist- 
ing entablature  in  the  tombs,  a  certain  resemblance  must 


150 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

1 


Fig.    71.      CAPITAL    FROM    Til K 
RUINS   OF   PBRSBPOLIS. 


Fig.    70.      CAPITAL     (RESTORED), 
FROM  THE   RUINS  OF  PER- 

SEPOLIS. 


Fig.   72.      VOLUTE  OF  THE 
PERSIAN  COLUMN. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  151 

have  existed  in  this  feature  to  the  Grecian  Ionic  style. 
On  an  architrave  consisting  of  three  projecting  stages, 
an  upper  beam  rested  on  small  blocks  similar  to  the 
Ionic  dentils,  on  which  was  a  broad  frieze  with  sculp- 
ture, such  as  a  row  of  bulls  or  dogs.  But  in  the  more 
ornate  and  slender  structure  of  the  palaces  at  Persepolis, 
the  entablatures  were  doubtless  more  elegant  than  those 
which   were  constructed  for  the  tombs. 

The  doors  have  a  square  border  and  a  cornice  similar 
to  the  Egyptian  entablature,  consisting  of  a  cyma  with 
a  facia  over  an  astragal.  With  this  exception,  nothing 
at  all  is  found  that  refers  to  or  coincides  with  Egyptian 
taste,  although  we  know  that  after  the  subjugation  of 
Egypt  Cambyses  caused  architects  to  be  summoned  to 
erect  the  royal  palaces.  It  must,  however,  be  understood 
that  by  this  term  only  artisans  are  meant,  to  whom  was 
entrusted  the  task  of  carrying  out  the  works  in  the 
usual  native  style. 

The  development  of  a  peculiar  architectural  style 
amongst  the  Persians  is  to  be  accepted  as  prob- 
able, but  a  style  based  upon  foreign  models  intro- 
duced by  them.  Remains  of  other  Persian  monu- 
ments present  traces  of  terrace-like  designs  with  im- 
mense flights  of  steps,  which  are  also,  as  we  have  seen, 
characteristic  of  Babylonian  architecture.  Though  the 
Persians  had  adopted,  beside  these  terraces,  many  other 
characteristics  of  Assyrian  architecture,  still  the  Persian 
style  is  essentially  to  be  distinguished  by  its  light  porti- 
coes instead  of  the  heavy  massive  walls,  and  by  the 
simpler  and  more  regular  ground-plan  of  its  buildings ; 
but,  above  all,  by  the  peculiar  formation  of  its  columns 


152  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


CHINESE  ARCHITECTURE. 

57.  At  the  conclusion  of  that  portion  of  this  work 
which  treats  of  the  architectural  styles  of  the  ancient 
races  of  Asia,  a  short  reference  must  be  made  to  Chinese 
architecture. 

Indian  art  made  its  entrance  into  China  with  the  wor- 
ship of  Buddha.  But  still  diversities,  corresponding  to 
the  different  nationalities,  were  gradually  introduced. 
Instead  of  the  Indian  dagoba  there  appears  a  tower-like 
construction  of  many  stories,  growing  smaller  towards 
the  top  and  with  the  stages  distinctly  marked,  and 
covered  with  gay-colored  curved  roofs  to  which  bells 
were  attached  (Fig.  73). 

These  tower-like  edifices,  which  were,  for  the  most 
part,  octagonal,  were  constructed,  like  the  temples,  for 
the  purpose  of  religious  worship. 

The  details  of  Chinese  architecture  show  much  affin- 
ity with  late  Indian.  For  example,  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  column,  curved  brackets  were  employed  instead 
of  a  capital  for  the  support  of  the  architrave. 

Chinese  structures  have  nothing  durable  about  them, 
for  perishable  wood  forms  an  essential  element  in  their 
construction,  and  they  were  more  remarkable  for  their 
elegance  and  slender  proportions  than  for  their  vast 
dimensions.  The  roofs  are  especially  characteristic,  the 
mest  striking  peculiarity  being  that  they  are  always 
ci nved,  and  have  figures  on  them  in  high  relief,  as 
Avell  as  at  the  corners,  from  which  hang  bells,  and  that 
they  are  decorated  with  all  kinds  of  embellishments, 
such  as  gilt  dragons,  and  other  fantastic  carvings  (Figs. 
74,  75,  and  76). 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


153 


I 


'Ij-fi-  i  i! 


jsk 


Fig.   74.      CHINESE   PAVILION. 


Fig.    73.      PORCELAIN 
T  IWER    AT    NANKIN. 


Fig.    75. 
PART    OF    CHINESE    PAVILION. 


The  introduction  of  bright  colore  and  of  glittering 
porcelain  and  glazed  tiles,  forms  a  peculiar  feature  in 
Chinese  architecture. 

The  architecture  of  the  Chinese  temples  does  n  't  dif- 


154  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

fer  from  that  of  the  other  buildings.  They  arc,  for  the 
most  part,  small,  and  consist  of  one  chamber  surrounded 
by  porticoes  (Fig.  77).  The  palaces  are  constructed  in 
the  same  way  a,s  the  temples,  and  are  more  remarkable 
for  their  size  than  their  beauty. 


Fig.  76.   ENTRANCE-GATE  TO  THE  TEMPLE  OF  CONFUCIUS  AT 
SHANGHAI. 


The  Chinese  do  not  possess  the  art  of  arching  large 
spaces,  consequently  numerous  columns  are  introduced 
for  the  support  of  the  ceilings  and  roofs;  these  are  of 
wood,  and  sometimes  carved  and  some  times  plain,  but 
invariably  painted. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECT UHE 


15; 


It  is  essential  to  the  complete  character  of  a  Chinese 
villa  that  it.s  neighborhood  be  adorned  with  a  supple- 
ment of  artificial  rocks  and  woodland  scenery,  with 
water-courses  with  bridges,  and  with  fountains,  grottos, 
and  fantastic  rockeries. 


Fig.  77.  PAVILION  OF  THE  GREAT  TEMPLE  AT  CANTON. 


Chinese  architecture  is  as  invariable  as  everything 
else  in  the  Celestial  Empire,  and  Chinese  art,  generally, 
is  the  same  as  it  was  many  hundreds  of  years  ago. 


156  EASY  LESSONS  IN   ARCHITECTURE 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

ROMAN  CHRISTIAN  BASILICAS  AND  CIRCULAR 
ARCHITECTURE. 

78.  Christianity,  as  well  as  the  influx  of  the  Ger- 
manic races,  could  not  fail  to  exercise  an  essential  in- 
fluence in  the  transformation  of  the  Roman  state,  and 
this  influence  was  naturally  extended  to  Roman  art. 
The  same  effect  was  wrought  in  the  East  by  the  Arabs, 
and  by  the  dissemination  of  the  creed  of  Mahomet.  That 
branch  of  art  which  belongs  to  totally  different  periods 
and  races  after  the  propagation  of  the  two  religions  has 
been  denominated  the  Romanesque,  in  order  to  express 
in  one  word  the  contrast  to  the  calm  repose  and  noble 
simplicity  of  classical  art.  This  denomination  does  not, 
however,  express  the  new  artistic  development  in  all  its 
phases,  as  has  been  shown  in  Section  161,  inasmuch  as 
the  new  growth  was  synchronous  with  the  decadence  of 
art  and  the  ingression  of  barbarism;  and  it  was  only 
some  centuries  later  that  a  more  untrammelled  move- 
ment and  a  more  poetic  flight  were  destined  to  spring 
into  life,  whilst  it  was  not  before  the  Middle  Ages  that 
the  new  art  reached  its  full  development.  Consequently 
this  title — "Romanesque  Art" — must  here  be  applied 
only  to  a  synoptical  review  of  a  whole  group  of  different 
styles,  and  in  contradiction  to  pre-Christian  and 
Modern. 

79.  The  new  elements  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
paragraph  have  been  entitled  "Early  Christian  Art," 
inasmuch  as  they  were  called  into  existence  by  the  new 
religious  requirements  of  the  nations  of  antiquity  that 
had  embraced  Christianity.     As,  however,  these  new  re- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ABCKITECTURB         157 

ligious  requirements  demanded  other  architectural  con- 
ditions than  those  which  already  existed,  a  new  style  oJ 
building  was  naturally  necessitated.  The  deterioration 
of  art  was,  however,  so  complete,  that  the  new  require- 
ments could  not  be  supplied  in  an  independent  and  or- 
ganic manner,  but  recourse  was  had  to  novel  and  pecu- 
liar combinations  of  old  artistic  forms;  consequently  an 
ensemble  arose,  constituting  the  Roman  Early  Christian 
Style,  which  differed  essentially  from  the  styles  already 
in  existence.  The  northern  races,  which  streamed  into 
Italy,  namely,  the  Ostrogoths  and  Lombards,  were  able 
to  render  no  assistance  in  the  work  of  development: 
on  the  contrary,  being  rude  and  uncultivated  in  com- 
parison with  Roman  civilization,  they  swallowed  it  up 
and  rendered  the  Roman  Christian  Style  the  common 
property,  not  only  of  Italians,  but  also  of  Franks  and 
Anglo-Saxons. 

80.  Through  the  division  of  the  empire  into  the 
East  and  West,  a.  d.  395,  and  through  the  foundation  of 
the  new  capital,  Constantinople,  on  the  site  of  the  old 
Byzantium,  a  "Byzantine"  art  grew  up  side  by  side 
with  the  Roman  Christian:  this  will  be  subsequently 
treated  in  a  separate  chapter. 

It  was  during  the  sixth  century,  especially,  that  Early 
Christian  art  assumed  a  distinctively  Byzantine  form 
in  the  Eastern  portion  of  the  empire :  and  this  form  was 
the  more  independent  because  the  nationality  of  the  peo- 
ple was  not  effaced  as  it  was  in  Italy  by  the  influence 
of  northern  nations. 

Since  the  Christians,  forming  no  distinct  people,  and 
constituting  no  entire  nationality,  possessed  no  well- 
defined  art  of  their  own,  and  were  obliged  to  employ 
the  architects,  builders,  and  sculptors  whom  they  found 


158  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

amongst  the  Greeks  and  Romans  for  the  erection  and 
adornment  of  their  buildings,  it  may  easily  be  supposed 
that  the  first  Christian  buildings  did  not  differ  ma- 
terially from  the  heathen  buildings  which  were  already 
in  existence.  Consequently  the  title  "Early  Christian 
Style"  must  be  understood  to  apply  only  to  churches  as 
converted  basilicas,  seeing  that  in  the  construction  of 
dwelling-houses  the  ancient  methods  were  retained  for 
a  considerable  period.  Any  alteration  in  that  respect 
could  only  take  place  after  protracted  and  gradual 
transformation  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Ro- 
mans, and  as  the  new  religion  acquired  a  greater  influ- 
ence over  architecture.  Whilst  Roman  art  in  the  West 
passed  over  into  the  hands  of  the  barbarians,  it  settled 
into  a  new  independent  system  at  Bazantium. 

Roman  Early  Christian  Architecture  found  its  chief 
application  in  Roman  Christian  basilicas  and  in  circular 
churches. 

The  continuance  of  this  description  of  architectural 
style  lasted  till  the  end  of  the  ninth  century — that  is,  till 
the  time  when  the  ancient  elements  were  forced  to  give 
way  before  independent  new  ones,  which  sprang  up  as 
described  in  a  subsequent  chapter.  Classical  forms, 
however,  maintained  their  ground  in  Italy,  and  especial- 
ly at  Rome. 

81.  When  the  Christians  were  first  allowed  to  build 
churches  for  themselves,  they  thought  that  the  best 
model  for  the  buildings,  in  which  the  Christian  congre- 
gations were  to  meet  together  for  worship,  was  to  be 
found  in  the  basilicas,  the  very  name  of  which  was  re- 
tained as  suitable,  seeing  that  it  means  kingly  hall.  It 
is  probable  that  the  first  Christian  basilicas  were  very 
like  their  model;  with  the  exception,  however,  that  the 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  159 

central  part  of  the  Roman  basilica,  which  was  generally 

open,  was  in  the  Early  Christian  basilicas  covered  with 
a  roof.  But  ere  long,  about  the  end  (if  the  fourth 
century,  a  gradual  transformation  in  the  original  de- 
sign was  perceptible.  A  form  of  basilica  was  developed 
from  the  genius  of  Christianity,  which  was  retained  un- 
altered for  succeeding  centuries.  Although  the  main 
outline  remained  the  same,  different  proportions  were 
assumed :  and  it  was  particularly  the  architecture  of  the 
interior  that  gave  its  peculiar  appearance  to  the  Chris- 
tian basilica.  Chving  to  the  fact  of  the  nave  being  roofed 
over,  an  essential  modification  took  place  compared  with 
the  Roman  basilicas,  which  were  not  vaulted,  but  formed 
a  kind  of  open  court  surrounded  by  colonnades;  where- 
as the  new  buildings  assumed  the  form  of  an  enclosed 
nave,  of  which  the  colonnades  became  aisles,  and  termi- 
nated by  a  recess  called  the  tribuna,  which  was  less  iso- 
lated than  in  the  ancient  basilicas.  The  typical  form  of 
the  Christian  basilica  is  as  follows: — 

82.  The  interior  was  divided  by  two  rows  of  columns 
into  three  aisles,  of  which  the  central  one  (a  Fig.  78) 
was  broader  and  higher  than  the  side-aisles  (see  Fig. 
79)  6  for  men  and  c  for  women,  and  was  terminated  at 
the  opposite  end  to  the  entrance  by  the  apse.  The 
columns  were  sometimes  surmounted  by  the  old  archi- 
trave, the  weight  being  supported  by  flat  relieving 
arches;  but  they  were  generally  connected  by  semi- 
circular arches,  which  supported  a  wall  pierced  with 
small  narrow  windows;  these,  like  those  in  the  walls  of 
the  side-aisles,  had  a  semicircular  head.  Sometimes  a 
transept  was  introduced  in  front  of  the  apse,  the  elonga- 
tion of  which  in  later  times  gave  rise  to  the  cross-like 
form  of  churches.     This  transept  was  separated   from 


160 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


the  main  aisle  by  semicircular  arches,  and  the  mound 
I'miih  of  Hif  whole  building  assumed  the  form  of  the  let- 
ter T. 


v  V 

.  / 

*  J 

*l 

H    1 

u 

o 

w 

71 

:o: 

:•  m 

1 

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1 

M 

n 

n 

■.    m 

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inV" 

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/'•■. 

y  ■ 


Fig.   78.      GROUND-PLAN    OF    THE 
CHRISTIAN    BASILICA    OF    SAN 
CLEMENTE    AT    ROME. 


1&..&AJ 


Fig.   79.    CHRISTIAN   BASILICA 
OF    SAN     PAOLO     FUORE 
DELLE  MURA   AT    ROME. 


Large  basilicas  sometimes  have  as  many  as  five  aisles 
(see  Fig.  78) — namely,  a  main-aisle  in  the  middle,  and 
two  lower  aisles  on  each  side  (Fig.  79). 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


161 


The  roofing  of  the  basilicas  consisted  of  beams  with 
a  fiat  panelling,  which  was  richly  gilt  in  earlier  times, 
or  the  rafters  of  the  timberworks  were  left  without  a 
easing,  and  were  ornamented  with  colored  embellish- 
ments  (Fig.  80). 

83.  At  the  east  end  in  the  transept  in  front  of  the 
apse  stood  the  altar  (Fig.  81,  e)  ;  this  was  frequently 
covered  by  a  baldachino  supported  on  four  pillars.   Be- 


:_Ci. 


Fig.    80.      SECTION    AND    INTERIOR    VIEW    OF    THE    FIVE-AISLED 
BASILICA  OF  S.  PIETRO  AT  ROME,  BEFORE  ITS  RESTORATION. 


hind,  in  the  tribuna  itself,  was  the  seat  of  the  bishop  in 
the  middle  raised  on  steps,  the  cathedra  (/),  and  in  a 
semicircle  on  both  sides,  the  seats  of  the  higher  eccle- 
siastics (g).  In  front  of  the  altar,  at  the  end  of  the 
middle-aisle,  was  a  long  space  surrounded  by  barriers  of 
marble  (h)  for  the  lower  clergy,  who  formed  the  choir, 
whence  the  place  itself  received  the  name  of  the  choir. 


1G2 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


A  marble  pulpit  (Ambo)  (/),  richly  adorned  for  the 
most  part  with  mosaic,  was  placed  on  each  side  of  the 
choir;  from  one  of  these  the  Gospel  was  read,  and  from 
the  other  the  Epistle.  In  some  instances  only  one  such 
ambo  was  erected,  and  it  then  had  two  divisions,  from 
the  higher  of  which  the  Gospel  was    read,    while    the 


5^^lL;:J/^::i::.^:r^flaaiBi*jg»gjal 


Fig.    81.      PROFILE  AND  VIEW  FROM   BENEATH  OF  THE   RAFTERS 

IN   THE  CHRISTIAN   BASILICA   OF  SAN   MINIATO 

AT  FLORENCE. 


Epistle  was  read  from  the  lower.  The  arrangement  of 
the  choir,  with  the  two  pulpits,  is  shown  by  the  per- 
spective view  of  the  interior  of  the  described  basilica 
of  San  Clemente  (Fig.  83). 

The  whole  of  the  space  which  is  shut  off  round  the 
altar  is  designated  the  Sanctuary,  and  is  raised  by  one 
or  two  steps  above  the  level  of  the  church.     At  both 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


163 


sides  of  it,  at  the  end  of  the  side-aisles,  an  especial  place 
was  occasionally  shut  off — namely,  the  Senatorium  (&), 
for  men  of  rank;  and  the  other,  the  Matroneum  (I), 
for  women  of  rank. 


Fig.   82.     GROUND-PLAN    OF   THE    CHRISTIAN    BASILICA    OF   SAN 
CLEMENTE    AT    ROME. 


84.  Adjoining  the  entrance  there  was  frequently  a 
narrow  space,  shut  off  by  a  barrier  drawn  breadthways 
across  the  building,  designed  as  a  locality  for  such  peni- 
tents as  had  regained  the  right  of  access  to  the  Sanct- 


1G4  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

nary.     This  space  was  called  the  Narthex,  or  scourge. 
A  portico  (m)  in  front  of  the  church,  and  other  porti- 


ng. 83.      INTERIOR   VIEW  OF  THE    EARLY   CHRISTIAN    BASILICA 
OF  SAN   CLEMENTE   AT   ROME. 


ci.cs  which   surrounded   an    outer  court    (n)    (Atrium, 
Paradise,   Vestibule,   Pronaos)    were  designated  by  the 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECT UIIE  165 

same  name,  and  were  intended  for  such  penitents  as 
were  entirely  out  of  the  pale  of  the  Catholic  commun- 
ity. In  the  middle  of  this  Pronaos  was  the  Cantharus, 
or  bowl  for  washing  the  hands,  and  intended  as  a 
symbolic  type  of  the  inner  purification,  which  subse- 
quently ensued  from  the  sprinkling  of  the  holy  water. 

85.  One  remarkable  peculiarity  of  basilicas  is  that 
a  subterranean  chapel,  or  crypt,  for  the  reception  of 
the  bones  of  the  saint  to  whom  the  church  was  dedi- 
cated was  constructed  under  the  principal  altar,  which 
stood  before  the  tribune.  The  word  "principal"  altar 
has  been  used  advisedly,  because  in  process  of  time 
side-altars  were  introduced  in  various  positions.  Some- 
times this  crypt  is  a  mere  vault,  but  more  generally 
it  is  an  architecturally  arranged  structure  with  pil- 
lars to  support  the  vaulting;  a  sort  of  subterranean 
hall,  which  was  probably  suggested  by  the  chapels  of 
the  catacombs  at  Rome.  When  these  multifarious  sub- 
terranean passages,  which  had  originally  been  excavated 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  stone,  were  used  by  the 
persecuted  Christians  as  places  for  refuge  and  burial, 
they  made  alterations  which  converted  them  into  crypts, 
resembling  chapels,  to  serve  as  a  meeting-place  for  the 
congregation.  Subsequently,  when  the  Christian  re- 
ligion was  recognized  at  Rome,  larger  churches  were 
built  over  these  graves  of  the  martyrs,  or  over  the 
entrances  to  the  catacombs;  and  probably  these  sepul- 
chral chapels  suggested  the  idea  of  the  construction 
of  a  crypt  in  other  situations  also,  destined  to  fulfil 
the  same  offices  as  the  structure  from  which  it  was 
copied. 

86.  The  form  of  the  Christian  basilica,  as  it  has  just 
been    described,    owed    its   origin    more   to   customs    and 


166         EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

requirements  which  were  necessitated  by  religious  wor- 
ship, than  to  artistic  deliberation.  Still,  though  on 
the  one  hand,  an  already  vitiated,  and  on  the  other 
a  still  embryo  art  were  instrumental  in  their  construc- 
tion, these  basilicas  produced  on  the  whole  a  sublime 
and  peaceful  effect,  which  is  principally  to  be  as- 
cribed to  the  beautiful  simplicity  of  Christian  archi- 
tecture that  pervades  their  principal  features.  The 
simple  ground-plan  of  later  Christian  churches  is  more 
clearly  and  intelligibly  traceable  in  the  Basilica  than 
it  is  in  more  elaborate  structures. 

The  most  characteristic  feature  in  the  basilica  are 
the  three,  or  sometimes  five,  parallel  aisles,  the  length 
of  each  of  which  is  easily  recognizable,  owing  to  the 
nave  being  higher  than  the  side  aisles. 

87.  The  ornamentation  of  the  basilica  corresponded 
with  its  architectural  form.  It  did  not  consist  of  plas- 
tic sculpture,  but  of  paintings  and  mosaics,  which  were 
introduced  on  the  side  walls  of  the  nave,  as  well  as  on 
the  so-called  triumphal  arch:  but  they  were  princi- 
pally employed  in  the  apse,  which  formed  the  termina- 
tion of  the  church  and  the  end  of  the  whole  perspective 
for  the  eye  of  a  person  entering  the  building  (see  Fig. 
80).  These  apse  mosaics  generally  represent  large,  de- 
tached figures,  turned  towards  the  spectator,  wrought 
on  a  ground-work  of  blue  or  gold,  with  bold  and  sim- 
ple drapery,  and  produce  an  imposing  effect. 

88.  Whilst  the  general  impression  is  therefore  sig- 
nificant, the  appreciation  of  detail  is  entirely  wanting 
in  these  early  Christian  edifices.  The  columns,  which 
are  generally  of  the  Corinthian  order,  were  for  the 
most  part  taken  from  older  buildings  of  the  heathen 
period,    and    differed    in    material   and    workmanship; 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  167 

.sometimes  even  those  of  dissimilar  dimensions  were 
placed  next  each  other.  The  intercolumination.  and 
even  the  breadth  of  the  side  aisle  are  often  unequal, 
the  side  walls  without  ornament,  while  the  entablature 
consists  merely  of  the  projecting-  ends  of  the  beams ; 
and  generally  speaking  altogether  a  fine  architectural 
feeling  is  wanting;  but  the  low  standard  of  an  anaes- 
thetic age  is  still  more  forcibly  expressed  by  the  mean- 
ness of  the  exterior  of  the  basilicas  with  their  bald 
walls  and  windows  and  doors  devoid  of  moulding.  The 
latter  were  generally  covered  with  a  horizontal  stone 
with  a  plain  arch-head  to  relieve  the  weight.  Sometimes 
there  was  in  front  a  portal  resting  on  two  columns  and 
covered  with  a  cross-arched  vaulting,  or  a  portico  was 
introduced  along  the  whole  length  of  the  facade.  In 
spite  of  the  unassuming  simplicity  of  the  external  con- 
struction it  is  commendable  that  it  seems  to  have  been 
caused,  at  least  in  the  main  arrangement  of  its  pro- 
portions, by  a  wish  to  render  the  characteristic  expres- 
sion of  the  interior,  for  the  lower  aisles  are  connected 
with  the  more  lofty  central  portion  by  a  slanting  en- 
tablature corresponding  to  the  roof.  The  material  was 
for  the  most  part  brick,  which  was  sometimes  left  quite 
plain,  whereby  the  construction  was  emphasized,  and  at 
others  received  a  marble  coating,  as  for  instance  at 
the  church  of  San  Miniato  at  Florence. 

The  form  of  the  Christian  basilica  which  has  been 
described  was  retained  for  several  centuries  in  Italy, 
and  especially  at  Rome.  So  true  did  the  architects 
remain  to  the  oldest  models,  that  the  buildings  of  the 
twelfth  century  are  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from 
those  which  have  been  erected  since  the  fourth. 

89.      The   most    complete    specimen    of   the    arrange- 


168 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


ment  of  an  ancient  basilica  is  presented  by  that  of  San 
Clemente  at  Rome  (Fig.  83).  One  of  the  most  notable 
instances  of  a  five-aisled  basilica  is  that  of  S.  Paolo,  out- 
ide  the  walls  of  Rome,  which  was  burnt 
down  and  subsequently  rebuilt  in  accord- 
ance with  the  old  plan. 

During  the  later  period  of  the  construc- 
tion of  basilicas,  an  isolated  tower,  of  a 
simple  rectangular  shape,  and  with  no 
taper,  was  often  erected  near  the  front 
facade  of  the  building.  Amidst  the  con- 
flicting views  which  have  been  arrived  at 
concerning  the  origin  and  object  of  this 
new  construction,  which  first  occurred  in 
connection  with  basilicas,  the  supposition 
that  it  was  originally  intended  to  collect 
the  congregation  for  service,  may  probably 
be  correct;  and  the  designation  bell-tower, 
as  answering  to  the  Italian  expression 
Campanile,  may  be  suitably  employed 
to  describe  it. 

90.  In  the  period  under  consideration, 
chapels,  convents,  and  other  buildings, 
such  as  triclinia,  or  large  halls  for  the 
reception  of  pilgrims  were  constructed  in 
a  style  resembling  that  of  the  basilica. 

There  was,  however,  another  usual  form 
of  church  which  was  synchronous  with 
the  basilica  and  which  must  now  be 
described.  In  this  class  of  structure  the  principal 
and  often  the  only  constituent  part  of  the  building 
consisted  in  a  space,  which  was  generally  round  or 
octangular,  covered  with  a  dome;  while  sometimes 
a  circular  passage  or  other  parts  of  the  building  abutted 


Fig.  84.  Tower  of 
Early  Christian  Ba- 
silica of  S.  Maria  in 
Cosmedin   at  Rome. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN   ARCHITECTURE 


169 


on  it  (Figs.  85  and  86).  But  when  the  entire  building 
does  not  consist  of  the  one  dome-covered  space,  it  always 
constitutes  the  central  portion,  and  the  other  parts  abut 
on  it. 


Fig.   85.      SECTION     OF     THE     CHURCH     OF     S.     CONSTANTIA     AT 

ROME. 

91.     The  simplest  descriptions  of  this  kind  of  build- 
ing are  the  baptisteries  (Figs.  86  a,  b,  c,  d),  for  which 


Fig.  86.   GROUND-PLAN  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  S.  CONSTANTIA  AT 

ROME. 

the  ancient  Therma?  furnished  models.  They  generally 
have  a  circular  or  octangular  ground-plan,  a  main 
space  covered  with  a  round  or  polygonal  dome,  and  a 


170 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


circular  passage  separated  therefrom  by  pillars  in  the 
same  way  that  the  side  aisles  are  separated  from  the 
main  aisle  in  basilicas  (see  Figs.  85  and  86).  Some- 
times they  were  without  this  passage,  and  only  had  gal- 
leries running  round  the  interior  like  boxes  in  a  the- 
atre. These  buildings  were  generally  erected  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  cathedrals. 

Other  churches  were  constructed  in  the  West  in  a 
similar  simple  way,  but  only  in  isolated  instances;  or 
some  times  in  such  a  manner  that  several  side  domes, 
resting  on  pillars  were  grouped  round  the  main  dome: 
in  which  case  the  one  which  contained  the  altar  always 
stood  out  prominently  from  the  rest. 


Fig.    87.      GROUND-PLANS    OF    BAPTISTERIES. 


92.  This  circular  architecture  only  occurs  in  isolated 
cases  in  early  Roman  Christian  architecture ;  on  the 
other  hand  in  the  Eastern  empire  it  became  the  preva- 
lent form  of  church  from  the  sixth,  if  not  from  the 
fifth  century,  and  must  be  considered  as  the  principal 
type  of  that  architectural  style,  which  will  be  con- 
sidered under  the  name  of  the  Byzantine  in  the  suc- 
ceeding subdivision. 

93.  In  the  ornamentation  of  basilicas,  as  in  all  works 
of  early  Christian  art,  and  particularly  in  the  case  of 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  171 

tombs,  symbolic  representations  form  a  characteristic 
feature.  It  will  not  be  inappropriate,  with  a  view  to  a 
due  understanding  of  the  same,  to  consider  some  of  the 
most  usual  and  most  important  of  these  symbols  or 
emblems. 

Christ  is  naturally  the  principal  subject  of  these  sym- 
bols; then  come  the  Christian  virtues  and  attributes. 

The  earliest  and  most  universal  is  the  sign  of  the 
Cross,  to  which  the  monogram  of  Christ  was  subse- 
quently added.  The  fish  was,  moreover,  an  emblem  of 
Christ,  because  the  letters  for  the  Greek  word  for  a 
fish,  taken  as  initials,  give  the  words,  "Jesus  Christ, 
the  Son  of  God,  Saviour." 

A  very  favorite  symbol  is  the  lamb,  whether  as  typi- 
cal of  Christ,  with  the  addition  of  a  Cross,  or  of  the 
Apostles,  or  of  all  Christians,  as  the  flock  of  the  Good 
Shepherd.  The  Dove  is  the  symbol  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
and  of  mildness  and  gentleness.  The  hart  is  an  em- 
blem of  Christian  longing,  in  consequence  of  the  well- 
known  verse  in  the  Psalms:  "Like  as  the  hart  de- 
sireth  the  water-brook,  so  longeth  my  soul  for  Thee, 
0  God;"  the  peacock,  which  was  already  an  emblem  of 
immortality  for  the  heathens,  retained  that  symbolic 
meaning  among  Christians ;  the  phoenix  was  a  very 
natural  emblem  of  the  Resurrection;  and  the  cock  of 
Christian  watchfulness. 

In  the  earliest  times,  when  the  Christians  celebrated 
their  worship  in  the  depths  of  the  catacombs,  the  angel, 
the  lion,  the  bull,  and  the  eagle,  were  already  emble- 
matic of  the  four  Evangelists.  A  leaf  is  a  very  com- 
mon symbol :  the  olive-leaf  as  sign  of  peace,  some- 
times with,  and  sometimes  without,  a  dove;  the  palm- 
leaf,  as  reward  of  victory  for  martyrs  and  the  departed, 


172  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

because  they  had  triumphed  over  death:  the  crown  and 
the  garland  had  the  same  signification;   the   vine-leaf 

was  in  early  times  the  most  favorite  emblem;  the  an- 
chor and  lyre  were  symbols  of  Christian  confidence 
and  joy;  the  horse,  a  ship  under  sail,  and  footsteps 
were  probably  typical  of  the  journey  of  life  and  the 
accomplishment  of  the  Christian  struggle;  the  Rock  was 
emblematic  of  our  Blessed  Saviour  and  of  the  character 
of  firmness;  and  the  pitcher  was  a  symbol  of  the  agape 
or  of  Holy  Baptism. 

94.  Besides  these  shorter  symbols,  other  more  elab- 
orate ones  are  drawn  partly  from  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  and  partly  from  imagination. 

Their  artistic  value  is  insignificant,  and  on  a  par 
with  heathen  productions  of  the  later  Roman  period. 
Of  Old  Testament  symbols  the  following  are  the  most 
common:  As  a  memorial  of  man's  sinfulness,  the  Fall, 
with  Adam  and  Eve  at  both  sides  of  a  tree  round  which 
is  coiled  the  serpent :  as  typical  of  obedience,  the 
sacrifices  of  Cain,  Abel,  and  Abraham :  as  incentive 
to  the  hope  of  help  in  danger,  Noah  in  the  Ark  on  the 
approach  of  the  dove,  frequent  representations  of  the 
prophet  Daniel  in  the  den  of  lions,  and  of  the  Three 
Children  in  the  fiery  furnace,  and  of  the  passage  of  the 
Red  Sea:  as  proof  of  heavenly  nourishment  and 
strengthening,  Moses  striking  water  from  the  rock  or 
receiving  the  Tables  of  the  Law  from  the  hands  of 
the  Lord :  as  symbolic  of  the  Resurrection,  the  ascen- 
sion of  Elijah.  An  especial  favorite'was  the  story  of 
Jonah,  which  combined  several  of  these  references,  and 
representations  of  his  sleeping  in  the  gourd-booth,  of 
his  being  swallowed  by  the  whale  and  cast  up  again, 
were  very   frequent. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN    \  K( '  H  ill  :<  'li  i:i:  17:} 

!).">.  The  mosl  important  events  in  the  life  of  Chrisl 
afford  materials  for  emblems  drawn  from  the  New  Tes- 
tament: these  only  occur  in  works  of  a  later  period — 
such  are  representations  of  the  Passion— of  the  cruci- 
fixion, the  crowning  with  thorns,  and  the  derision.  Some 
of  the  miracles  of  the  Gospel  narrative  were  greatly 
in  favor,  as:  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  the  miraculous 
feeding  of  the  people,  the  healing  of  the  woman  with 
the  issue  of  blood,  of  the  paralytic  man,  of  the  blind 
man :  then  more  historic  subjects,  as  the  conversa- 
tion with  the  woman  of  Samaria,  the  entry  of  Christ 
into  Jerusalem,  the  washing  of  feet,  Christ  before  Pi- 
late, Peter's  denial  and  leading  away  into  prison,  the 
delivery  of  the  keys  to  Peter,  etc. 

96.  The  favorite  and  most  usual  representation  of 
Christ  is  as  the  Good  Shepherd,  generally  in  a  shep- 
herd 's  dress,  bearing  the  lost  sheep  on  His  neck  or  cares- 
sing it:  sometimes  merely  sitting  amongst  the  sheep 
with  a  shepherd's  staff  or  a  flute.  Besides  these  forms 
Christ  is  often  represented  without  relation  to  a  par- 
ticular incident,  generally  teaching,  surrounded  by  His 
disciples  or  the  twelve  Apostles,  either  sitting  or  stand- 
ing on  a  mountain,  from  which  issue  four  springs  as 
symbols  of  the  rivers  of  Paradise  and  of  the  Evan- 
gelists. 

Christ  is  also  represented  as  Orpheus,  in  a  short  gar- 
ment, covered  with  the  Phrygian  cap,  with  the  lyre  in 
His  hands  and  playing  on  it,  sitting  under  the  trees, 
whilst  lions  and  camels  and  birds  in  the  branches  listen 
to  Him. 

God  the  Father  is  generally  represented  simply  by  a 
hand  stretched  forth  from  the  clouds. 

Whilst  these  representations  are,  it  is  true,  well  cal- 


174  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

ciliated  to  stir  religious  thoughts  in  the  beholder,  still 
their  artistic  worth  must  be  described  as  insignificant, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  pictures  of  Christ  in  the 
apses,  which  portray  considerable  grandeur  and  dig- 
nity. 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE. 

97.  After  the  separation  of  the  Roman  Empire  into 
the  Eastern  and  Western  divisions  (395  A.  D.),  a  new 
order  of  things  arose  in  the  Eastern  portion,  and  es- 
pecially in  its  new  capital  of  Constantinople.  On  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Byzantium,  and  with  an  infusion 
of  oriental  elements,  the  Byzantine  style  was  conse- 
quently developed.  The  sixth  century,  which  witnessed 
the  reign  of  Justinian,  was  the  most  important  for  the 
formation  of  this  new  style.  Soon  afterwards  the  in- 
roads of  the  Arabs  and  the  conquest  of  whole  provinces 
by  that  race  began  to  exercise  an  influence  on  the 
form  of  Byzantine  architecture.  On  the  other  hand 
Byzantine  architecture  had  a  reflex  action  on  Arabian, 
as  will  be  shown  in  the  succeeding  subdivision.  The 
Crusades  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  and  the 
supremacy  of  the  Franks  in  the  Greek  empire  which 
arose  from  those  religious  movements,  tended  to  ex- 
tend the  scope  of  Byzantine  architecture  over  other 
countries  also.  But  when  the  old  line  of  emperors  re- 
turned they  were  unable  to  withstand  the  victorious 
inroads  of  the  Turkish  Sultan,  and  the  Western  Empire 
became  the  prey  of  the  resistless  Turks  in  the  year  1453. 

It  has  been  usual  hitherto  to  call  Art  in  the  west 
during  the  early  period  of  its  development  in  the  Mid- 


KASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE  175 

die  Ages  Byzantine,  but,  although  the  influence  of  By- 
zantine tonus  is  to  be  traced,  it  was  far  from  stamping 
its  impress  on  the  western  styles.     The  architecture  of 

the  Byzantine  empire,  properly  so-called,  has  exclus- 
ively to  be  dealt  with  here,  and  the  extraneous  influence 
which  it  exercised  will  be  considered  in  the  fourth  di- 
vision of  the  second  book  under  the  head  of  Later  K>>- 
manesque  architecture.  Moreover,  owing  to  various 
causes,  buildings  were  erected  in  other  countries  in  the 
Byzantine  style  but  these,  although  they  do  not  belong 
to  the  national  architecture  of  the  countries  in  question, 
must  be  classified  with  the  buildings  built  in  the  prev- 
alent style. 

98.  Two  epochs  must  be  distinguished  in  Byzantine 
architecture.  The  first,  which  begins  with  Constantine 
and  ends  with  Justinian  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, is  that  of  the  formation  of  the  new  style,  till  the 
completion  of  a  settled  system :  domical  construction  is 
its  essential  feature. 

The  second  and  longer  period  exhibits  a  rigid  imita- 
tion of  the  settled  system,  with  an  addition  of  oriental 
forms,  and  is  finally,  at  least  in  some  localities,  sub- 
jected to  the  influence  of  Western  Art. 

99.  The  essential  element  in  the  formation  of  the 
Byzantine  style  is  the  vault,  which  did  not  assume  a 
free  and  independent  character  till  it  reached  the  East- 
ern Roman  Empire;  for  hitherto  in  the  west  it  had 
always  been  subordinate  and  unsuitable  to  the  Graeco- 
Roman  columnar  construction.  Massive  piers  and  wide 
arches  with  a  dome  rising  over  them  in  the  main  space, 
and  vaulted  side-spaces  in  connection  with  it:  these 
are  the  prominent  characteristic  elements  of  the  archi- 
tectural design.     Columns,  if  they  were  employed  at  all, 


176  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

were  made  to  be  subordinate  to  the  main  form  of  the 
vault  construction,  and  were  introduced  between  the 
large  piers  and  the  arches. 

The  construction  of  the  vault  influenced  the  whole 
structure  of  the  building.  The  principle  of  vaulting 
that  had  already  been  introduced  by  the  Romans,  in 
which  the  walls  no  longer  served  as  supports,  but  as 
enclosures,  was  carried  to  its  utmost  limits  in  the  new 
Byzantine  style :  for  the  pressure  and  thrust  of  the 
vault,  which  is  held  together  by  the  counterpoise  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  dome  and  strengthened  by  but- 
tresses, is  distributed  only  on  individual  points. 

The  Roman  decorative  principle  was,  however,  aban- 
doned, inasmuch  as  a  change  took  place  in  the  indi- 
vidual details  and  in  the  manner  of  their  application. 
Thus,  for  instance,  projecting  cornices,  if  not  entirely 
given  up,  wore  only  employed  to  crown  the  building, 
and  its  component  parts,  particularly  intermediate  cor- 
nices, became  tame  and  fiat  in  their  outline.  As  only 
a  subordinate  position  was  allotted  to  the  columnar 
architecture,  the  usual  proportions  of  the  columns  and 
their  capitals  were  abandoned  and  altered  after  an  ar- 
bitrary fashion. 

During  the  early  period  various  ground-plans  were 
followed  in  the  construction  of  churches.  Sometimes 
they  were  octagonal,  after  the  manner  of  the  West- 
Roman  central  style,  at  others  they  formed  oblongs, 
approaching  a  square,  with  a  dome  over  the  center. 

100.  The  Byzantine  style  of  this  first  period  reached 
its  highest  example  and  splendor  in  the  church  of 
Sta.  Sophia  at  Constantinople.  After  this  church,  which 
was  originally  built  by  Constantine,  had  been  burnt 
to  the  erround,  it  was  rebuilt,  with  the  utmost  care,  and 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


177 


at  great  expense,  by  Justinian.  It  remained  a  peer- 
less model   for  all   later  buildings  of  this   description, 

and  was  celebrated  far  and  wide,  not  only  for  its  size, 
but  for  the  span  of  its  vaults  and  the  splendor  of  its 
decorations.     A  short  description  of  this  building  will 


Fig. 


88.      GROUND-PLAN   OF   THE   CHURCH   OF   STA.    SOPHIA,    AT 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 


therefore  explain  the  main  characteristics  which  were 
subsequently  universally  followed,  for  though  the  pro- 
portions in  other  buildings  of  a  similar  nature  were 
diminished,   yet   they   were   always   constructed   in   ac- 


178         EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

cordance  with  the  same  plan,  which  will  he  rendered 
intelligible  by  Figs.  88,  91  and  92. 

The  external  ground-plan  of  the  building  (Fig.  88) 
approaches  a  square,  being  252  by  230  feet,  in  the 
center  of  which  four  massive  piers,  connected  by  semi- 
circular arches,  form  another  square,  and  by  means 
of  triangular  vaultings  (pendentives)  which  span  these 
arches,  support  a  flat  dome. 


Fig.  89.      DOME-SYSTEM    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    STA.    SOPHIA    AT 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 


Right  and  left  on  both  sides  of  this  central  square, 
as  viewed  from  the  entrance,  stand  four  pillars,  which 
are  connected  by  arches,  and  support  the  women's  gal- 
lery. On  each  of  the  open  sides  of  the  dome-covered 
square  there  abuts  a  semi-circle  with  semi-domes  of 
somewhat  inferior  height  to  the  main  dome.  (Fig.  91.) 
These  semi-domes  are  penetrated  on  each  side  by  three 
smaller  vaults  (Fig.  89)  ;  the  middle  one  of  the  three  is 
a  barrel  or  cylindrical  vault  (Fig.  90)  and  on  the 
entrance-side  forms  the  main-entrance,  and  opposite,  on 
the  further  side,  it  forms  the  apse :  whilst  the  two  re- 
maining vaults  on  each  side  assume  the  form  of  immense 
niches  with  semi-domes,  resting  on  two  rows  of  columns 
one  above  the  other. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


179 


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180  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

In  this  way  the  whole  inner  space  forms  an  oval  nave, 
which  is  terminated  towards  the  west  by  a  vault  with 
a  square  end,  and  towards  the  east  by  the  apse :  whilst 
in  its  height  it  appears  as  an  entire  whole,  owing  to 
the  vaults  of  various  descriptions  and  altitudes  that 
radiate  from  the  central  dome. 

Round  this  lofty  central  space,  except  on  the  side 
of  the  altar,  are  ranged  side-aisles  of  two  stories,  which 
do  not  however  assume  the  form  of  a  continuous  aisle, 


Fig.  91.     BARREL  VAULT. 

but  are  divided  into  three  divisions  on  each  of  the  long 
sides,  in  the  second  story  of  which  are  the  women's 
galleries,  so  that  the  whole  does  not  appear  an  open 
space,  but  rather  an  oval  hall  with  side-halls  and  arches. 
These  two-storied  aisles  are  shown  in  Fig.  88  by  hatch- 
ings, and  the  nave  in  the  middle,  having  been  left 
plain,  is  brought  out  more  prominently. 

The  embellishment  was  rich  to  the  highest  degree: 
the  walls  and  piers,  and  even  the  floor,  were  inlaid 
with  colored  stones,  and  the  vaults  were  enriched  with 
mosaics  on  a  ground  of  gold,  and  the  columns  were 
constructed  of  various  marbles  of  the  most  precious 
kind.  The  nave  was  lighted  from  above  by  windows 
pierced  in  che  main  and  in  the  semi-domes. 

Besides  the  Narthex,  there  was  a  second  vestibule: 
both  extended  the  whole  breadth  of  the  building.     In 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECT UKE 


]Sl 


Fig.   92.      INTERIOR  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  STA.  SOPHIA  AT 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 


front  of  it  was  an  entrance  court  surrounded  by  a  colon- 
nade, which  was  entered  through  an  arch  resting  on 
four  pillars. 

101.  The  most  striking  point  of  difference  in  the 
impression  conveyed  by  the  interior  of  this  Byzantine 
church  and  the  interiors  of  Roman-Christian  basilicas 


182 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


is  that  while  the  latter  carry  the  eye  longitudinally  to 
their  apsidal  termination,  the  former  arrests  it  by  the 
prominence  of  the  central  portion  of  the  building;  that 
is  to  say,  by  a  stupendous  dome  constructed  on  a 
quadrangular  substructure,  in  which  all  other  details 
culminate.  But  notwithstanding  this  system  of  cen- 
tralization, and  the  majestic  appearance  of  the  dome, 
the  perspective  effect  of  length  is  not  entirely  aban- 
doned, as  it  was  in  the  case  of  octangular  and  circular 
buildings;  which  constructions  were,  however,  rarely 
employed  for  large  churches. 


^.saialgPBB  oas  IlilE  I'!! 


Fig.   93.      EXTERIOR  OF  THE   CHURCH  OF  STA.   SOPHIA  AT 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 

Although  the  impression  conveyed  by  this  church  is 
not  so  pure  and  simple  as  that  which  the  basilicas  pro- 
duce, still  its  outlines  are  magnificent  and  imposing. 
The  exterior  displayed  a  novel  divergency  from  the 
normal  standard.  Whilst  hitherto  the  antique  form  of 
the  roof  had  been  preserved,  it  was  now  replaced  by 
a  totally  different  one:  inasmuch  as  the  vaulting,  at 
least  of  the  domes,  was  visible  from  the  outside  without 
any  screen,  or  the  only  covering  it  had  was  one  of 
polished  metal.     (Fig.  93.) 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


183 


According  to  this  model  it  became  the  normal  rule  in 
buildings  in  the  Byzantine  style  for  the  domes  to  spring 
from  a  square,  and  to  introduce  around  it,  except  on 
the  altar  side,  galleries  for  the  women  and  to  allow  the 
vaulting  to  be  visible  externally. 


Fig.   94.      GRCLND-PLAN 

OF  THE   CHURCH   OF  ST. 

MARK  AT  VENICE. 


Fig.   95.      GROUND-PLAN    OF   THE 
CHURCH   OF   THE   THEOTOKOS, 
AT  CONSTANTINOPLE. 


102.  Contemporaneously  with  the  church  of  Sta. 
Sophia,  another  form  arose,  which  being  subsequently 
frequently  repeated,  constitutes  a  second  period  of  the 
Byzantine  style,  and  forms  the  most  eminent  charac- 
teristic of  Byzantine  churches,  namely,  the  ground-plan 
of  the  Greek  cross  with  a  vault-system  consisting  of 
five  domes.  The  cross  is  formed  by  the  intersection 
of  the  nave  and  transept  and  a  dome  is  raised  on  piers 


184 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


at  the  point  of  intersection,  whilst  over  the  extremity 
of  each  arm  of  the  cross  is  a  similar  dome,  only  with- 
out windows.  (Fig.  94.)  The  arms  of  the  cross  are 
often  covered  by  a  barrel-vault  instead  of  a  dome. 
(Figs.  95  and  96.)  On  the  front  side  of  the  church 
there  is  generally  a  narthex,  or  a  front-hall  of  consid- 
erable dimensions  covered  by  vaultings. 


Fig.    06.      SECTION    OF    THE    CHURCH    AT    THE    THEOTOKOS 
AT    CONSTANTINOPLE. 


But  the  ground-plan  of  a  square  with  the  central 
dome  resting  on  piers  or  columns,  and  with  four  smaller 
domes  at  the  corners,  is  more  common  and  more  charac- 
teristic of  the  Byzantine  style.     The  women's  galleries 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


185 


were  then  introduced  between  the  principal  piers,  open- 
ing on  to  the  central  space. 

As  a  rule,  two  small  side  apses  were  constructed  on 
each  side  of  the  main  apse:  They  were  not,  however, 
visible  from  the  outside. 


f-     ■     '     P 


Fig.   97.      FACADE  OF   THE   CHURCH  OF   ST.    TAXIARCHOS   AT 
CYTHNUS. 


103.  The  principal  difference  between  these  build- 
in  «i-s  and  those  of  the  first  period  consists  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  dome,  which  no  longer,  as  in  the  church  of 
Sta.  Sophia,  assumes  the  shape  of  a  flat  vault,  but  that 
of  a  hemisphere,   whereas   externally   it  often   appears 


186 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


as  a  flat  vault  resting  on  a  perpendicular  substructure. 
Whilst  internally  the  windows  pierce  the  vaulting,  ex- 
ternally they  are  let  into  the  vertical  wall.  (Fig.  97.) 
In  this  arrangement  may  be  recognized  the  origin  of  the 
drum  which  subsequently  became  common  in  the  west. 
In  buildings  of  this  period  there  are  found,  as  has 
already  been  remarked,  several  domes  in  one  building; 
sometimes  three,  but  more  often  five;  the  four  smaller 
ones  either  forming  a  cross  with  the  central  dome,  or 
being  introduced  at  the  four  corners. 


"  IS  w 


i 


Fig.   98.      CHURCH  OP  ST.   NICODBMUS  AT  ATHENS. 

104.  The  vaultings  are  always  without  covering  ex- 
ternally.  Only  in  instances,  where  regard  for  climate 
or  western  influence  have  been  brought  to  bear  on  their 
construction,  are  they  covered  with  tiles  or  slabs  of 
slime:  and  even  then  the  shape  of  the  various  vaultings, 
whether  domes,  or  barrel-vaults,  or  cross-vaults,  remains 
almost  always  undisguised.  The  roofing  of  the  church, 
beside  the  vaultings,  consists  either  of  plain  slopes,  or 
the  outside  walls  are  raised  so  high  that  they  are  only 
overtopped  by  the  principal  dome,  whilst  they  screen 
the  smaller  ones,  and  so  terminate  the  facade  by  a  hor- 
izontal line.     (Fig.  98.)     The  barrel-vaults  of  the  arms 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE         187 

of  the  cross  were  afterwards  converted  into  circular 
pediments,  and  finally  all  the  upper  portions  of  the 
building  were  terminated  by  rounded  lines  only. 

The  exterior  always  remained  extremely  simple,  and 
the  oriental  love  of  magnificence  was  in  preference  de- 
veloped internally.  Sometimes  the  uniformity  of  the 
facade  was  broken  by  alternate  rows  of  tiles  and  stones, 
or  of  stones  of  various  colors.  The  windows  were  in- 
troduced in  the  women's  galleries,  and  were  narrow,  and 
covered  by  round  arches,  or  a  double  window  was 
formed  by  the  interposition  of  a  pillar. 


Fig.  99.   FROM  THE  CHURCH    Fig.  100.   FROM  THE  CHURCH 
OF  SAN  VITALE  AT  RAVENNA.   OF  SAN  VITALE  AT  RAVENNA. 


105.  The  walls  of  the  interior  were  cased  with  costly 
marble,  and  in  later  times  were  ornamented  with  mo- 
saics, representing  either  figures  or  arabesques,  com- 
posed of  very  small  precious  stones  or  glass  dice,  and 
subsequently  with  frescoes :  both  the  latter  kinds  of  or- 
namentation were  affected  on  a  dark-blue,  but  after- 
wards always  on  gold  ground.    Owing  to  this  extensive 


188 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


employment  of  mosaics,  a  traditional  style,  both  for  de- 
sign and  coloring,  was  formed  for  these  figurative  rep- 
resentations, which  may  be  called  the  mosaic  style:  it 
was,  as  has  been  shown,  employed  in  the  Roman  ba- 
silicas, and  had  great  influence  over  the  plastic  art  of 
Later  times.  In  these  mosaics  the  arabesques  are  of 
slender,  intertwining  patterns,  whilst  the  representations 
of  figures  are  stiff  and  conventional. 


Fig.  101.   FROM  THE  CHURCH   Fig.  102.   FROM  MARCIAN'S 
OF  THE  THEOTOKOS  AT    COLUMN  AT  CONSTANTINOPLE. 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 


106.  The  essential  characteristic  of  the  Byzantine 
style  is  therefore,  in  short,  that  the  vaulting,  and  es- 
pecially the  dome,  constitutes  the  main  feature,  to  which 
all  else  is  subordinate.  With  the  Romans  vaulting  was 
associated  with  the  Grecian  column,  and  formed  an 
isolated  feature  in  their  constructions,  but  in  the  By- 
zantine style  it  became  an  independent  system ;  although 
its  artistic  productions  may  never  have  surpassed  medi- 
ocrity as  regards  detail.    It  was  a.  consequence  of  this 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


189 


system  that  the  architrave  of  the  Grecian  orders,  which 
is  so  essentially  antagonistic  to  the  vault  construction, 
was  entirely  abandoned.  The  predominance  of  the  dome 
and  the  vault  was  only  a  natural  consequence  of  the 
development  which  this  system  was  left  free  to  assume 
by  the  abandonment  of  the  outer  roof  and  the  associa- 
tion Avith  the  dome  of  the  semicircle  in  place  of  the 
gable,  at  the  termination  of  the  outer  walls. 

107.     Besides  the  main  design,  many  of  the  details 
of  the  Byzantine  style  present  novelties  and  peculiari- 


Flg.  103.   FROM  THE  CHURCH  OF  ST.  MARK  AT  VENICE. 


ties,  in  which  the  wish  for  diversity  and  picturesque 
effect  point  indubitably  to  an  oriental  influence.  The 
servile  imitation  of  the  Grecian  column  is  abandoned ; 
new  forms  of  capitals  arise,  which  suit  the  vaulted 
arches  better,  and  evince  more  supporting  power  than 
the  Greco-Roman  would  have  done.  This  result  is  pro- 
duced by  the  introduction  of  a  kind  of  support  placed 
under  the  arch  at  the  top  of  the  capital.     (Figs.  99  and 


190  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

100.)  This  may  be  accounted  as  the  most  remarkable 
and  most  peculiar  of  the  details  of  form  in  the  Byzan- 
tine style.  The  capitals  are  of  various  kinds;  gener- 
ally with  pointed  acanthus  leaves,  and  resembling  the 
Grecian  Corinthian  column  (see  Figs.  101  and  102)  : 
others  are  like  the  capitals  of  the  Composite  order,  as, 
for  instance,  Figs.  103  and  104.     Capitals  like  that  de- 


Fig.  104.  FROM  THE  CHURCH  OF  STA.  SOPHIA  AT 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 


picted  in  Fig.  100,  short  and  cubical  in  shape,  with 
trapeziform  sides  and  incised  foliage  or  other  orna- 
mentation, are  peculiar  to  the  Byzantine  style. 

In  other  respects  the  purely  architectural  details  are 
very  deficient,  and  are  generally  replaced  by  mosaic 
ornaments.  A  love  of  splendor  and  varied  richness  of 
color  predominates  over  the  taste  for  the  artistic  work- 
ing of  architectonic  details. 

Byzantine  ornaments  are  in  general  to  be  distin- 
guished from  those  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  styles, 
to  the  former  of  which,  as  well  as  to  Asiatic  sources, 
they  owe  their  origin,  by  a  rougher  and  more  unpleasing 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE         191 

treatment,  and  by  the  leaves  in  the  sculptures  being 
deeply  indented,  sharp-pointed,  and  hollowed  out  in  the 
middle.  The  running  foliage  is  generally  poor  and  un- 
interrupted. 

108.  The  forms  which  have  been  described  are  in 
use  at  the  present  day  in  the  construction  of  churches 
in  Greek  Catholic  countries;  namely,  a  square  or  oblong 
ground-plan  with  a  dome  visible  from  the  exterior  ris- 
ing on  four  piers  over  the  central  space,  and  having 
cylindrical  vaults  over  the  sides  and  small  domes  over 
the  corners,  and  as  a  rule  three  apses.  The  narthex, 
also,  is  not  wanting,  and  it  sometimes  has  a  portico  in 
front  of  it. 

Such  are  the  regularly  recurring  elements  of  most 
Greek  churches,  though  here  and  there  some  modifica- 
tions occur,  as,  for  instance,  the  separation  of  the  sanc- 
tuary from  the  main-space  by  traverse-walls. 

109.  No  remains  exist  of  Byzantine  palaces,  and  we 
only  know  by  the  description  of  Byzantine  writers  that 
they  wrere  richly  adorned  with  costly  materials,  such 
as  precious  stones  and  mosaics.  On  the  other  hand. 
Byzantine  buildings  of  another  kind  have  escaped  the 
ravages  of  time,  namely,  the  cisterns,  which  were  con- 
structed principally  in  Constantinople  and  Alexandria 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Constantine.  They  are  large 
reservoirs,  covered  with  little  domes  or  cross-vaultings, 
resting  on  columns.  Sometimes  several  shafts  were 
placed  one  over  another.  In  connection  with  these  cis- 
terns were  large  aqueducts,  after  the  manner  of  the 
Roman. 

110.  Byzantine  Art  gained  a  footing  also  in  the 
West.  Italy  especially,  even  after  the  division  of  the 
i  mpires,  and  after  the  separation  of  the  churches,  still 


192  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

maintained  relations  and  intercourse  with  the  East. 
Many    Byzantine   elements  were   communicated   to  the 

rest  of  the  West  by  trade,  and  in  later  times  by  the 
Crusades  directly,  whilst  indirectly  they  passed  thither 
through  Italy;  and  here  and  there  buildings  in  the 
Byzantine  style  are  to  be  found,  either  pure  or  modified. 

In  this  respect  Ravenna,  on  the  east  coast  of  Italy, 
is  most  remarkable,  which  for  a  long  time  was  under 
Greek  rule,  and  was  therefore  subjected  at  the  same 
time  to  the  influence  of  both  Rome  and  Constantinople. 
The  church  of  San  Vitale  deserves  especial  mention, 
which  was  built  at  very  nearly  the  same  time  as  the 
church  of  Sta.  Sophia  at  Constantinople.  It  forms  an 
octagon  with  a  dome  resting-  on  eight  piers;  the  spaces 
between  these  piers  form  niches,  covered  by  semi-domes, 
with  two  rows  of  arcades  one  above  another,  cutting 
into  the  main  domes;  as  in  the  church  of  Sta.  Sophia. 
(Compare  Fig  91.) 

In  the  north-eastern  parts  of  Europe  and  in  Asiatic 
countries  the  Byzantine  style  spread  simultaneously 
with  the  Greek  church,  and  exercised  a  great  influence 
over  the  formation  of  native  Art,  as,  for  instance,  in 
Armenia,  and  Georgia,  and  in  the  Russian  empire,  in 
which  countries  the  working  of  Byzantine  style  merits  a 
special  consideration;  the  influence  that  Byzantine  Art 
exercised  over  Arabian  architecture  will  be  considered 
in  that  portion  of  the  work  to  which  it  properly  be- 
longs. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


193 


Byzantine    Architecture  in  Armenia   and   Georgia. 


111.  Church  architecture  in  these  countries  must  be 
viewed  as  an  offshoot  of  the  Byzantine  style.  The  By- 
zantine  typical  plan  is  sometimes  found  combined  with 
the  basilica;  while  the  dome  in  the  center  of  the  build- 
ing, the  barrel-vaults  of  the  side  portion,  the  construc- 
tion of  the  apses  and  sometimes  the  narthex  are  all 
accepted. 


Fig.  105.   EAST  FACADE 
OF  THE  CHURCH. 


Fig.  106.   GROUND-PLAN  OF 
A  CHURCH  AT 
VAGHARSCHABAD. 


The  churches  of  Armenia  and  Georgia,  which  were 
built  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  show  a  devia- 
tion from  ibis  form.  Their  plan  is  a  parallelogram, 
from  which  the  apse,  if  it  is  not.  concealed  in  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall,  and  the  gateways  project  polygonally. 
Sometimes,  instead  of  these  projections,  there  are  tri- 
angular recesses  in  the  walls  as  shown  in  Figs.  105  and 


194 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


106.     The  roofs  of  the  aisles  slope  from  the  wall  of  the 
nave  as  in  Western  buildings. 

The  doors  generally  have  circular  or  horseshoe  arches 
over  them,  although  in  later  times  they  were  pointed  or 
pyriform.  The  windows,  which  are  as  narrow  as  loop- 
holes, have  sometimes  straight  and  sometimes  circular 
heads,  and  are  often  surrounded  by  ornaments,  which 
do  not  lay  claim  to  any  importance,  and  which,  in  the 
more  important  churches  are  freely  introduced  on  the 
archivolts,  cornices,  and  doors.  Intertwined  lines  as 
shown  in  Fig.  107,  enriched  with  foliage,  are  of  very 
frequent  occurrence. 


Fig.   107.      PART    OF    AN    ORNAMENTED 
WINDOW    CASING. 


Fig.   108.      CAPITAL    OF 
A   COLUMN. 


112.  The  exterior  walls  are,  generally,  as  in  many 
Byzantine  churches,  relieved  by  half  columns,  connected 
by  arches,  which  have  the  appearance  of  marking  off 
the  wall  into  several  subdivisions.  Fig.  108  shows  the 
capital  of  one  of  these  columns,  which  seldom  occur  in 
any  other  part  of  the  building.  The  cornices  consist 
of  full  and  massive  mouldings. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  195 

As  regards  the  exterior,   it  must  be  remarked,  that 

where  the  basilica  construction  has  been  retained,  a  sort 
of  transept  extends  right  and  left  from  the  dome,  the 
gables  of  which  resemble  those  of  the  western  and  east- 
ern facades. 

113.  The  central  dome  rests. either  on  four  inde- 
pendent piers;  or,  when  the  central  form  predominates, 
on  the  walls  which  slope  inwards,  so  that  totally  discon- 
nected spaces  are  formed  at  the  corners,  which,  so  far 
as  concerns  the  impression  conveyed  by  the  interior, 
might  as  well  not  exist;  in  fact,  internally  no  endeavor 
is  made  to  produce  any  perspective  effect.  A  polygonal 
form  also  occurs,  with  a  number  of  niche-like  project- 
ing  buildings  corresponding  to  the  number  of  the  sides. 

The  main  dome  is  not  spherical  but  conical  in  shape, 
and  vaulted  with  layers  of  stone  projecting  one  over  the 
other. 


RUSSO-BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE. 

114.  Russian  architecture  may  properly  be  called  a 
deterioration  of  the  Byzantine  style,  though  it  was  modi- 
fied by  many  influences,  and  deviated  considerably  from 
it.  It  has  maintained  its  peculiarities  and  errors  of 
taste  for  centuries  from  the  time  of  its  formation  from 
the  Byzantine  style  down  to  the  present  day. 

The  Slavonic  races  that  dwelt  in  the  broad  expanses 
between  the  Adriatic  and  Black  Seas  and  the  Baltic, 
which  were  intersected  by  forests,  morasses,  and  steppes, 
had  received  the  first  genus  of  their  civilization  by 
their  intercourse  with  the  Byzantine  provinces;  and 
Byzantine  architecture  found  acceptance,  owing  to  the 


19  G 


EASY   LESSONS   IN    ARCHITECTURE 


building  of  numerous  churches  by  order  of  Vladimir  the 
Great  (981-1015),  in  whose  reign  a  general  profession 
of  Christianity  tock  place  in  Russia,  whilst  that  sov- 
ereign had  continual  intercourse  with  Constantinople. 


Fig.    109.      CATHEDRAL   OK   THE    ASSUMPTION   AT   MOSCOW. 


The  nature,  however,  of  the  country  and  of  the  peo- 
ple was  net  conducive  to  a  national  development  of  the 
elements  which  had  been  implanted.    A  further  obstacle 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE         197 

was  presented  by  the  inroads  of  Mongols  from  Asia, 
and  their  establishment  in  the  country  under  the  rule 
of  Ghengis  in  12:57.  After  their  ascendency  had  been 
overthrown  by  Ivan  III.  (1462-1505),  and  the  relations 
between  Russia  and  Constantinople  had  ceased  with  the 
capture  of  the  latter  city  by  the  Turks,  that  emperor 
procured  artists  of  all  kinds  from  the  West,  and  par- 
ticularly from  Italy,  for  the  erection  of  the  numerous 
buildings  which  he  caused  to  be  constructed;  amongst 
others  was  the  celebrated  architect,  Fioravanti,  of  Bo- 
logna,  in  the  year  1475,  who  was  summoned  to  build 
the  still  existing  church  of  the  Assumption  at  Moscow, 
exactly  after  the  model  of  the  Cathedral  of  Vladimir, 
which  was  the  oldest  metropolitan  church  of  Russia,  and 
therefore  it  is  only  in  some  few  details  and  in  the 
improvement  of  the  proportions  that  the  better  taste 
of  the  Italian  architect  is  perceptible. 

115.  It  is  only  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century 
that  Russian  architecture  begins  to  exhibit  a  divergency 
from  the  Byzantine ;  for  then  forms  crop  up  that  denote 
a  Tartar  origin,  as  the  bulb-shaped  dome,  &c. 

In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  Russian 
architecture  assumed  a  highly  peculiar  form,  to  which 
the  church  of  Vassili  Blanskenoy,  at  Moscow,  with  its 
fantastic  shapes,  greatly  contributed  (Fig.  110V  In 
this  building  the  merit  both  of  art  and  style  had  fallen 
even  lower  than  before. 

116.  The  first  churches  were  built  at  Tchernigow, 
Kief,  and  Novogorod,  during  the  first  half  of  the  elev- 
enth century,  after  the  model  of  the  church  of  St. 
Sophia,  by  Byzantine  architects  and  workmen.  A  de- 
viation, that  had  already  been  introduced  into  the 
Byzantine  style  in  the  Eastern  empire  became  the  in- 


198 


EASY   LESSONS  IN    AKCI1ITE(  TURE 


Fig.    110.      CATHEDRAL  CHURCH   OF  VASSILI    HLANSKENOY. 
AT   MOSCOW. 


dispensable  type  for  all  large  churches  of  this  descrip- 
tion lij)  till  the  present  day,  oamely,  the  construction 
of  five  domes  in  such  ;i  way  thai  the  four  lesser  domes 
are  introduced  over  the  four  corner  spaces  of  the  square 
thai  forms  the  base. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  199 

117.  Russian  architecture  displays  its  most  peculiar 
feature  in  the  shape  and  number  of  the  domes;  the  dia- 
meter of  which  often  exceeds  that  of  the  drum  that 
forms  the  substructure.  These  domes  no  longer  have  a 
regular  spherical  shape,  but  run  up  into  a  point  at  the 
top,  while  the  sides  have  swelling  curves  in  the  shape 
of  a  pear  or  bulb,  and  some  are  even  broader  and 
flatter  than  those  objects.  The  turriform  substructure 
becomes  still  higher  and  slenderer  with  these  bulb-like 
domes. 

The  number  of  the  domes  is  increased  in  buildings 
which  have  pretensions  to  magnificence,  in  such  a  way 
that  either  all  the  domes  form  part  of  a  central  system, 
the  lesser  domes  being  grouped  round  the  central  one, 
and  diminishing  in  height  as  they  recede  from  the  center. 
and  arranged  on  parallel  or  diagonal  lines  which  form 
squares,  or  several  square  centralized  systems  of  domes 
are  introduced  contiguous  to  one  another.  At  the  top 
of  the  dome  is  a  gilt  cross,  which  often  spring's  from 
a  half-moon,  and  from  it  gilt  chains  hang  down  and 
are  fastened  to  the  dome. 

The  impression  of  this  mass  of  domes  is  heightened 
and  rendered  more  grotesque  by  the  application  of 
colors.  The  roofs  which  are  covered  with  sheet-metal 
are  painted  yellow,  red,  or  white,  whilst  the  domes  them- 
selves are  green  or  blue,  studded  with  gold  stars,  or 
entirely  gilt  or  silvered:  the  central  ones  being  more 
richly  decorated  than  the  outside  ones. 

118.  The  exterior  surface  of  the  walls  is  broken  by 
slightly  projecting  pilasters,  but  in  other  respects  it  is 
tasteless.  The  wind'ows  are  small  and  covered  by  a 
circular  arch  or  by  two  connected  together;  the  ends 
of  which  have  no  supports.    They  are  often  introduced 


200 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


in  two  rows  one  above  another,  which  seems  a  meaning- 
less imitation  of  the  Byzantine  double  row  of  windows 
which  w;is  necessitated  by  the  women's  galleries. 

One  characteristic  peculiarity  in  the  construction  of 
Russian  churches  consists  in  the  hip-roof,  in  which  the 
main  dome  at  the  top  and  the  side  domes  at  the  corners, 
being  raised  on  drums,  terminate  in  a  very  unartistic 
manner  (Fig.  111). 


Fig.   111.     HIP-ROOF  WITH 
SUPERINCUMBENT  DOMES. 


Fig.   112.      BELL-TOWER. 


119.  The  domes  are  supported  in  the  interior  by 
lofty  piers,  either  circular  or  angular.  The  plastic  por- 
tion of  architecture  is  entirely  wanting  inasmuch  as  no 
sculpture  exists  'in  Russian  buildings.  The  principal 
divisions  are  only  embellished  by  painting  and  gild- 
ing.    The  chief  ornament  of  the  interior  consists  of  the 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  201 

iconostasis,  which  is  a  high  screen  reaching  as  far  as 
the  vaulting,  and  shutting  off  the  altar  from  the  con- 
gregation. On  this  iconostasis  are  painted  pictures  of 
saints  in  three  or  four  horizontal  compartments,  ac- 
cording to  an  arrangement  which  is  fixed  and  sanctioned 
by  ritualistic  use.  The  figures  are  painted  on  a  gold 
ground,  with  gold  and  silver  drapery,  and  always  in 
accordance  with  one  normal  type,  and  the  whole  screen 
is  scantily  lighted  by  lamps.  In  other  respects  the  in- 
terior is  generally  dark  and  gloomy. 

120.  Bell-towers  (Fig.  112)  are  generally  detached 
from  the  church,  and  it  is  only  in  quite  modern  times 
that  they  have  been  connected  with  them.  They  gener- 
ally consist  of  several  diminishing  stories,  either  circu- 
lar or  octagonal  in  shape,  which  usually,  but  not  always, 
have  a  square  base.  They  are  frequently  crowned  by  an 
obelisk,  terminating  in  a  bulb-shaped  dome,  like  a  gi- 
gantic steeple-knob. 

121.  Even  in  the  later  Russian  style,  which  retains 
few  reminiscences  of  the  Byzantine,  the  circular  arch  is 
prevalent ;  and  is  introduced  for  the  roofing  of  the  inner 
spaces,  in  the*  form  of  a  barrel-vault,  without  the  cross- 
vaulting  being  used.  It  is  only  in  external  details  that 
the  keel-arch  is  met  with,  which  is  of  such  frequent  oc- 
currence in  the  Mahometan  buildings  in  Persia  and 
India,  and  which  consists  of  two  vaultings  uniting  in 
one  point.     (See  Mahometan  Architecture,  Fig.  118.) 

122.  In  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  vitiated  taste  of 
the  West  found  its  way  to  Russia,  and  by  encroaching 
on  the  native  fantastic  architecture,  if  not  entirely  sup- 
planting it.  it  followed  the  same  course  as  it  did  in  other 
countries;  and  it  is  only  quite  lately  that  an  imperial 


21 12  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

edict  has  been  promulgated  to  retain  the  old  Byzantine 
style  as  much  as  possible  in  Russian  churches.  Rus- 
sian architecture  can  only  produce  an  advantageous 
effect  for  the  aesthetically  cultivated  eye  when  cities 
are  viewed  as  an  entirety,  for  then  the  great  variety 
of  the  numerous  variegated  towers  and  domes,  although 
quaint  and  wanting  in  repose,  has  a  rich  and  imposing 
effect. 


MAHOMETAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

Arabian  Architecture  in  General. 

123.  During  the  course  of  the  seventh  century,  A.  D., 
the  religion  of  Islam,  which  had  been  founded  by  Ma- 
homet, united  in  a  short  space  of  time  the  nomad  tribes 
of  the  Arabs,  who  had  hitherto  lived  in  wild  freedom, 
into  one  mighty  people,  which  spread  this  new  religion 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Ganges. 

The  want  of  buildings  for  the  new  worship  neces- 
sarily called  into  existence  the  architectural  and  artis- 
tic elements  amongst  these  united  races.  But  since  the 
roving  life  which  they  had  led  was  little  calculated  to 
foster  art,  or  effect  an  independent  civilization,  they 
were  obliged  to  appropriate  and  use  for  their  own  pur- 
poses the  existing  forms  of  art  in  the  various  countries 
over  which  they  disseminated  the  creed  of  Mahomet. 
These  forms,  however,  were  transmogrified  in  the  hands 
of  the  conquerors  according  to  their  own  genius  and 
taste,  so  that  the  Arabian  style  was  gradually  developed 
out  of  the  forms  which  were  found  ready  to  hand,  and 
which  belonged  for  the  most  part  to  Early  Christian  art 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  203 

of  the  later  Roman  period,  together  with  an  admixture 
of  Asiatic  elements.  This  style,  however,  received  a 
different  impress  in  the  various  countries  in  which  it 
was  developed :  thus,  for  instance,  in  Egypt  it  was 
blended  with  the  rigid  conformity  of  the  Egyptian,  and 
in  India  with  the  voluptuousness  of  the  Indian. 

Arabian  architecture  was  developed  on  the  basis  of 
the  Early  Christian,  that  is  to  say,  on  that  of  the  basili- 
cas of  the  Byzantine  style. 

Its  formation  and  peculiarity,  apart  from  the  in- 
fluence of  the  fantastic  genius  and  lively  imagination 
of  the  Arabs,  was  necessarily  in  part  determined  by 
the  fact  that  every  kind  of  figurative  representation, 
whether  of  man  or  animal,  is  forbidden  by  the  Mahome- 
tan creed. 

124.  In  the  earliest  times  Christian  churches  were 
made  use  of  for  the  practice  of  the  new  religion.  It 
was  only  when  the  whole  of  the  East  had  become  united 
through  Islam  that  independent  Arabian  art  was  de- 
veloped. After  the  empire  of  the  Caliph  had  spread 
from  the  confines  of  India  to  Spain,  Arabian  architec- 
ture diffused  itself  from  Bagdad  as  a  center  by  the 
erection  of  many  splendid  palaces  and  mosques.  These 
last-mentioned  buildings,  however,  did  not  have  such 
an  effect  on  the  formation  of  the  style  as  was  the  case 
with  the  sacred  buildings  of  nations  professing  other 
religions,  whose  worship  required  certain  settled  forms. 

Mosques,  however,  have  aLso  their  essential  parts,  that 
must  never  be  wanting;  but  their  design  is  not  normal, 
and  consequently  the  main  form  of  the  mosque  is  not 
a  settled  one.  The  requisite  parts  of  a  mosque  are  as 
follows :  the  Mihrab,  or  Hall  of  Prayer,  which  mark  the 
direction  of  Mecca    (Kibleh),   and  which  must   conse- 


204 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


quently  have  had  a  different  position  in  different  coun- 
tries; then  a  place  for  the  ablutions,  which  precede 
prayer;  and  finally  a  large  space  for  the  entry  and 
departure  of  the  faithful,  for  the  reading  of  the  Koran 
and  prayers.  In  this  space  are  the  Maksura,  or  seat  of 
the  Caliph,  when  one  was  required;  as  also  a  place  for 
the  preservation  of  the  Koran,  and  finally  the  Mimbar, 
or  kind  of  pulpit.  A  further  requirement  is  the  Min- 
aret, a  kind  of  tower,  from  which  the  Iman  calls  the 
hour  of  prayer,  and  of  which  the  larger  mosques 
generally  possess  four  or  six. 


Fig.    113.      GROUND    PLAN    OF    THE    MOSQUE    OF    IBN    TOULOUN 
AT   CAIRO. 


125.  Two  main  forms  are  noticeable  in  the  design 
of  mosques.  The  one,  which  belongs  to  the  western 
countries  of  Islam,  and  is  the  older  of  the  two.  is  a 
lengthened  square  shut  in  by  walls  and  surrounded  with 
arcades  on  the  inside,  without  a  roof,  and  often  planted 
with  trees   (Fig.   a,   113).     A  well    (b)    covered  by  a 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


205 


cupola  always  constitutes  one  of  the  chief  ornaments 
of  this  court-like  space.  On  one  side  is  a  covered  build- 
ing (A),  in  which  are  introduced  the  hall  of  prayer  (dj 
and  the  sanctuary  and  pulpit  (e),  and  which  often  con- 
sists of  several  rows  of  arcades  running  one  behind 
another  with  a  flat  roof. 

Besides  the  portals  and  battlements,  the  only  orna- 
mentation that  the  exterior  receives  is  the  slender  tower 
or  minaret  (f,  Fig.  114).  There  seems  to  be  no  fixed 
rule  for  its  position.  This  design  seems  more  impor- 
tant, when  the  Mausoleum  of  the  founder  is  connected 


'  WSS'S^^-.^ 


Fig.   114.      PART   OF  THE   SECTION   OF    THE   MOSQUE   OF  IBN 
TOULOUN  AT  CAIRO. 


with  it,  rising  in  a  high  vaulted  dome  over  the  main 
body  of  the  building.  The  buildings  and  arcades  are 
covered  with  domes  of  various  shapes. 

126.  In  the  other  kind  of  mosques,  which  are  con- 
structed on  the  model  of  the  Byzantine  style,  the  body 
of  the  building  forms  an  independent  and  separate 
feature,  in  wrhich  the  main  space,  as  well  as  the  side 
spaces,  are  covered  by  vaultings  in  the  Byzantine  fashion, 
the  roof  of  the  former  being  a  dome.  The  outer  court, 
surrounded  by  arcades,  also  occurs,  and  these  arcades 
have   likewise   small   dome-vaultings.     The   exterior   is 


206 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


more  gracefully  constructed,  and  the  introduction  of 
several  minarets,  from  two  to  six,  at  the  corners,  has 
an  elevating  effect.  Although  a  Byzantine  model  is 
recognizable  in  the  main  design,  still  an  Asiatic,  and 
chiefly  Indian  influence  is  unmistakable  in  the  external 
forms,  and  especially  in  the  domes. 

127.  Taken  as  a  whole,  Arabian  architecture,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  oriental  manner  of  life,  may  be 
described  as  internal  rather  than  external ;  especially  in 
palaces  and  dwelling-houses.  Whilst  the  tasteless  ex- 
terior of  buildings  only  displays  to  the  eye  high  walls 


•  i '•'  •  ■ -^ 


FIG.    115.    DETAIL    OF   THE 
EXTERNAL   BATTLEMENT  Fig.    116.      DETAIL    MARKED 

MARKED   y   IN        Fig.   114.  x   IN   FIG.    114. 


which  are  irregularly  pierced  by  small  windows,  and 
those  few  in  number,  everything  in  the  interior  is 
richly  decorated.  The  richest  ornamentation  is  lavished 
on  the  most  essential  part  of  these  buildings,  namely, 
on  the  porticoes  which  surround  the  open  court.  There 
are  no  fixed  orders  or  proportions  for  the  pillars,  as 
there   are   in    Grecian   and  Roman    architecture:    some- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  207 

times  they  are  squat  and  heavy;    at  others  slender  and 
graceful,  especially  in  the  later  period. 

128.  In  the  different  countries  which  were  subjected 
to  the  sway  of  the  Arabs,  three  different  forms  of 
arches,  besides  the  circular  arch,  which  is  of  rare  oc- 
currence, are  met  with  in  the  arcades,  and  in  connec- 
tion with  the  doors  and  windows.  In  Egypt  and  Sicily 
occurs  the  pointed  arch  (Fig.  117),  which  consists  of 
curves,  and  resembles  the  arch,  which  was  subsequently 
employed  in  the  West  in  the  Pointed  or  Gothic  style, 
only  that  it  is  more  elliptical.  It  occurs  in  monuments 
which  are  perhaps  rightly  attributed  to  the  earliest 
period  of  Mahometan  architecture :  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  it  is  met  with  in  buildings  which  belong  to 
the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century. 


Fig.    117.  Fig.   119.  Fig.   118. 

ARABIAN  ARCHES. 

In  Persia  and  India  the  keel-arch  occurs  (Fig.  118), 
which  differs  slightly  from  the  pointed-arch,  the  ends  of 
the  curves  being  bent  slightly  upwards,  in  the  shape  of 
the  keel  of  a  vessel.  In  Spain  the  horse-shoe  arch  (Fig. 
119)  is  the  most  frequent  form,  which  consists  of  a 
larger  segment  of  a  circle  than  that  formed  by  a  semi- 
circle. 

These  different  forms  of  arches  were  not  architec- 
turally determined  and  systematically  carried  out  in 
the  various  buildings  in  which  they  occur,  but  employed 
rather  in  an  arbitrary  manner. 


208 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


129.  The  walls  over  these  arches  are  covered,  as  all 
flat  surfaces  generally  were,  with  embellishments  in  the 
shape  of  arabesques,  which  either  consist  of  flat  relief 
in  stucco,   or  are  painted  in  lively  colors.     They  are 


Fig.  120.   MOORISH  WALL  DECORATION  IN  THE  ALHAMBRA 
AT  GRANADA. 


formed  of  the  most  multifarious  entwinings  of  straight 
or  curved  lines  or  belts,  sometimes  bearing  a  resemblance 
to  vegetable  forms,  as  Figs.  120,  121,  122,  and  123 
demonstrate.  Each  of  these  patterns  is  extended  over 
considerable  surfaces.     A  brilliant  but  not  a  staring 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


209 


general  effect  is  produced,  in  spite  of  the  lively  colors, 
which  must  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  each  color 
is  spread  over  a  very  small  surface,  and  consequently 
does  not  become  too  prominent. 


Fig.    121. 


In  conformity  with  religious  regulations,  the  orna- 
mentations never  express  a  symbolic  meaning.  On  the 
other  hand,  numerous  inscriptions  form  an  essentially 
characteristic  part  of  the  embellishment  of  Saracenic 
buildings:  they  are  principally  passages  from  the 
Koran,  or  proverbs,  and  are  introduced  in  the  principal 
parts  of  the  ornamentation.  The  inscriptions  of  the 
older  style,  in  the  Kufic  character,  so  called  from  Kufa 


210 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


a  town  on  the  Euphrates  (Fig.  124),  is  ornamental  in 
form,  and  blends  harmoniously  with  the  other  embellish- 
ments. At  a  later  period  the  Italic  character  (Fig.  125), 
which  is  less  stiff,  came  into  use  for  the  same  purpose. 


Fig.  122. 


Fig.    123.      WALL    LICCORATION 
FROM   THE  ALHAMBRA   AT 
GRANADA. 


130.  For  the  roofing  of  buildings  straight  beams 
and  vaultings  were  both  in  use.  For  the  latter  Arabian 
architecture  has  created  a  quite  peculiar  and  highly 
characteristic  form.  The  vaulting  consists  of  small 
cavities,  or  miniature  domes,  which  rise  one  above 
another  till  the  topmost  forms  a  kind  of  point  at  the 
top  (Figs.  126  and  127).  The  effect  of  these  vaultings, 
which  resemble  stalactite  grottoes,  and  which  are  richly 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


211 


ornamented  with  coloring,  is  complicated  rather  than 
worthy  of  imitation.  Properly  speaking,  they  do  no1 
deserve  the  name  of  vaultings,  inasmuch  as  they  have 
nothing  in  common  with  that  kind  of  construction,  and 


*_&2r*tyljS$S~ja' 

^K?^f»i^^w^a^sisS 

I'fc-N 

^^^Si 

mm 

53 

m 

El 

fillip 

PS^S^i 

mm 

■  %jc  ^ 

Sfrlrffi 

Id 

Fig.  124.   KUFIC  CHARACTER  EMPLOYED  AS  DECORATION. 

should  be  considered  rather  as  fantastic  eccentricities 
They  almost  always  consist  of  plaster  or  wood  and  are 
strengthened  by  beams  and  roofing. 


Fig.    12 


ITALIC    CHARACTER    EMPLOYED    AS    DECORATION. 


The  domes  are  for  the  most  part  flat  and  plain  ex- 
ternally, or  ornamented  with  stripes  like  a  gourd ;  in 
buildings  of  importance  they  are  larger,  and  either  semi- 
circular or  tapering. 


212 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


It  now  remains,  after  the  above  remarks  on  Arabian 
architecture  in  general,  to  describe  the  peculiarities  of 


Fig.  126.   SECTION  OF  PART  OF 

THE  ROOF  OF  THE  CAPELLA 

PALATINA  AT  PALERMO. 


PROFILE   OF    FIG.    126. 


Fig.    127.       PERSPECTIVE    VIEW    OP    PART    OF    A    VAULT   FORMED 
BY  SMALL  SUPERINCUMBENT  ARCHES. 


style    which    arose    in    the   various   countries  in   which 
Saracenic   buildings   were  erected. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  213 


2.  Arabian  Architecture  in  Spain. 

131.  Spain  was  conquered  by  the  Arabs  in  the  year 
711  a.d.,  and  in  755  Abd  el  Rahman  founded  an  inde- 
pendent Arabian  empire  in  that  country,  and  after  he 
had  reigned  for  thirty-five  years  began  to  adorn  his 
capital,  Cordova,  with  buildings;  especially  by  the  con- 
struction of  a  large  mosque;  and  Arabian  architecture 
in  Spain  may  be  said  to  commence  with  that  structure. 
The  Roman  style  that  was  prevalent  in  the  country  was 
to  a  certain  extent  retained,  and  the  fragments  of 
Roman  buildings  were  employed  in  the  new  structures. 

The  most  nourishing  period  of  Arabian  art  in  Spain 
was  during  the  reign  of  Abd  el  Rahman  III.,  from  912 
to  961,  under  which  monarch  Cordova  reached  the  high- 
est pitch  of  its  splendor.  He  caused  buildings  to  be 
erected  in  many  of  the  cities  of  the  country,  especially  in 
the  newly-founded  town  of  Zahra,  in  which  the  simple 
forms  of  the  earlier  centuries  appear  already  giving 
way  to  rich  and  fantastic  shapes.  In  the  same  way  as 
the  Roman  style  had  at  first  formed  the  model,  so  now 
the  Byzantine  style  was  preferred,  on  account  of  its 
yielding  richer  forms.  But  independent  features  were 
employed  in  connection  with  these  Byzantine  elements, 
and  forms,  which  were  quite  peculiar  to  the  Arabs, 
such  as  the  horse-shoe  arch,  were  mingled  with  them. 
The  relations  with  Byzantine  art  were  finally  entirely 
broken  off,  when  after  long  internal  struggles  with  the 
Christian  knights,  Arabian  Spain  passed  under  the  yoke 
of  the  African  Moors,  and  Morocco  became  the  seat  of 
government. 


214         EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

132.  Buildings  were  erected  at  Seville,  as  well  as  at 
Cordova:  and  amongst  these  the  Minaret,  which  is 
called  the  Giralda,  is  especially  remarkable.  It  was 
erected  in  1195,  and  is  still  in  existence;  in  it  the  forms 
of  the  Early  Arabian  and  Byzantine  styles  have  already 
disappeared.  The  Alcazar  is  also  worthy  of  notice,  and 
though  it  has  undergone  many  changes  through  subse- 
quent restorations,  still  it  exhibits  essentially  the  same 
forms  as  the  Giralda,  For  instance,  the  capitals,  which 
are  still  Corinthian,  are  of  a  graceful,  slender  shape, 
instead  of  being  heavy,  as  heretofore,  and  the  arches 
assume  a  pointed  character  instead  of  the  broad  circu- 
lar. They  never,  however,  take  the  shape  of  the  simple 
pointed  arch,  but  are  indented  at  the  top  and  on  the 
inner  sides  with  various  little  arches.  Similar  towers 
to  the  Giralda  are  found  at  Morocco,  Tunis,  and  Tetuan, 
whilst  the  minarets  at  Cairo  and  in  the  East  are  differ- 
ent. 

133.  Whilst  the  Arabian  buildings  at  Cordova  (Fig. 
128),  as  well  as  similar  isolated  remains  in  other  towns 
of  Spain,  belong  to  the  first  period  of  Arabian  archi- 
tecture in  that  country,  as  is  evidenced  by  their  clumsy 
jipplication  and  imitation  of  Roman  and  Byzantine  forms, 
the  buildings  at  Seville  belong  to  the  second  period, 
which  was  that  of  the  freer  development  of  the  strictly 
Moorish  style;  although  it  si  ill  retained  some  reminis- 
cences of  earlier  times.  In  the  third  period  the  forms 
were  entirely  independent,  and  were  also  richer  and 
more  peculiar,  and  the  buildings  were  characterized  by 
variegated  and  magnificent  ornamentation.  This  style 
is  illustrated  by  the  buildings  of  Granada,  and,  above 
all,  by  the  Alhambra. 

It  was  only  during  the  latter  period  of  Saracenic  rule 
in  Spain,  after  Cordova  and  Seville  were  again  in  the 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


215 


possession  of  Christian  kings,  and  Andalusia  had  be- 
come the  last  place  of  refuge  for  the  Mahometan  popu- 
lation, that  Granada,  which  had  been  founded  in  the 
tenth  century,  became  powerful  and  important  as  the 
point  of  concentration  for  Moorish  power  and  civiliza- 
tion in  Spain,  and  as  the  seat  of  a  brilliant  court  and 


Fig.   128.     VIEW   OF  THE  INTERIOR  OF  THE  MOSQUE  AT  CORDOVA. 


a  school  of  arts  and  sciences.  The  city  attained  tic 
zenith  of  its  splendor  in  the  fourteenth  century.  But 
small  remains  exist  of  its  numerous  palaces.  Besides 
the  Generalife,  which  is  a  graceful  garden-pavilion  in 
the  style  of  the  Alhambra,  only  the  Alhambra  itself 
remains  as  the  most  important  and  best -preserved  speci- 
men of  its  romantic  splendor. 


216 


EASY  LESSONS  IN   ARCHITECTURE 


134.  The  Alhambra  forms  a  portion  of  the  town 
which  was  entirely  surrounded  by  fortifications;  in 
fact,  the  citadel  on  which  were  built,  besides  the  royal 
palace,  public  buildings  and  the  houses  of  the  court 
officials,  and  displays  externally  only  the  walls  and 
towers  of  a  fortress.  The  castle  was  founded  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  during  the  reign  of  Abou  Abdallah 


Fig.  129.   GROUND-PLAN  OF  THE  ALHAMBRA  AT  GRANADA. 


ben  Nassar,  who  died  in  1270.  But  the  richest  and 
most  beautiful  parts  of  the  building  which  are  still 
remaining,  were  carried  out  by  Abou-el-Walid  (1309- 
1325),  and  by  Abou  Abdallah  (1325-1391).  One  of  the 
last  kings,  Muley  Hassan  (1445-1453),  only  added  some 
smaller  portions. 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE         217 

Though  pari  of  the  castle  \v;is  turned  into  a  modern 
palace  under  Charles  V.,  yet  the  most  beautiful  parts 
of  the  interior  are  still  preserved.  They  consisl  of 
splendid  halls  and  dwelling-rooms  grouped  round  two 
courts,  the  one,  the  Court  of  the  Alberca,  with  its 
double  row  of  myrtles,  and  the  other  the  celebrated 
Court  of  the  Lions.  (Fig.  130.)  (For  plan,  see  Fig. 
129.) 

This  Court  of  the  Lions,  so-called  from  the  fountain, 
which  is  placed  in  the  center,  and  supported  by  twelve 
of  these  animals,  is  a  hall  surrounded  by  graceful 
columns  and  arches,  while  in  the  middle  of  the  narrow 
side  of  the  court  the  projecting  columns  form  pavilions, 
in  which  are  other  fountains.  On  the  south  side  is  the 
Hall  of  the  Abencerages  (a),  so-called  because  the 
knights  of  the  race  of  the  Abencerages  were  murdered 
here,  while  on  the  north  side  is  the  Hall  of  the  Two 
Sisters   (b). 

The  most  celebrated  amongst  the  magnificent  and 
graceful  dwelling-chambers  and  banquet-halls  are  the 
following:  The  Audience  Hall,  or  Hall  of  the  Ambas- 
sadors, with  a  banquet  hall  in  front;  the  Hall  of  the 
Abencerages;  the  Hall  of  the  Two  Sisters,  in  which 
were  the  women's  apartments,  and  which  consisted  of  a 
large  hall  with  two  side-halls  and  a  cabinet;  and  finally 
a  long,  narrow  hall  called  the  Hall  of  Judgment,  which 
took  in  the  east  side  of  the  Court  of  the  Lions.  The 
combination  of  all  these  graceful  halls  and  courts,  with 
fountains  and  arcades,  and  with  delightful  Little  gar- 
dens attached  to  them,  and  gleaming  with  rich  and  mag- 
nificent coloring,   lends  a   romantic  charm  to  the  win  Le. 

The  whole  of  the  interior  is  of  a  highly  ornamental 
character,  and  displays  in  the  design  of  the  decorations 


218 


EASY  LESSONS  IX   ARCHITECTURE 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE         219 

a  carpet-like  treatment,  rather  than  a  monumental  one, 
or  one  based  on  constructive  elements.  Lighl  slender 
columns  carry  a  wall  which  is  covered  with  various 
decorative  patterns  upon  stilted  arches,  which  are  lightly 
relieved  with  filigree  work.  In  spite,  however,  of  th<' 
free  choice  which  was  allowed  in  the  various  forms  of 
the  details,  the  whole  seems  imbued  with  a  spirit  oF 
harmony. 

There  is  a  very  successful  imitation  of  the  Court  of 
the  Lions  with  the  adjoining  halls,  two-thirds  of  the 
natural  size,  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  which  is  well  calcu- 
lated to  convey  the  magic  impression  which  1  his  build- 
ing must  have  raised  in  the  days  of  its  splendor,  and 
which  it  even  now  creates,  although  devouring  time  has 
robbed  it  of  much  of  its  pristine  magnificence. 

Since  the  Alhambra  is  especially  suitable  to  illustrate 
the  character  of  the  Later  Arabian  style  in  Spain,  and 
because  the  Moorish  system  of  ornamentation  found  in 
thai  building  its  most  splendid  and  most  complete  ex- 
pression, a  general  description  of  the  details  of  the 
Alhambra  will  not  be  inappropriate. 

135.  The  architectural  style  is  essentially  the  same 
in  the  different  parts  of  the  Alhambra.  The  columns 
are  very  slender  and  elegant,  the  height  being  twelve 
times  the  diameter  (Fig.  131),  and  adorned  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  building  with  various  colors  and  devices. 
The  capital  (Fig.  132)  is  almost  always  in  the  shape  of 
a  cube  with  the  lower  corners  rounded  off  and  adorned 
with  interlacing  representations  of  plants,  whilst  it  is 
separated  from  the  shaft  by  a  long  neck  with  several 
fillets.  The  base  also  is  separated  from  the  shaft  by  a 
torus,  and  consists  of  one  simple  cavetto  only.  A  rec- 
tangular cube  rests  on  the  capital  and  supports  a  cii- 


>20 


EASY  LESSONS  EN  ARCHITECTURE 


iiugHBnMMpaMnanimuuHVH 


Fig.  132.  CAPITAL  OF  A  COLUMN 
IN  THE  ALHAMBRA  AT  GRANADA 


h"\g.    131.   COLUMN  WITH  SUPER 

STRUCTURE  IN  THE  ALHAMBRA 

AT  GRANADA. 


Fig.  133. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


221 


cular  arch  with  a  vertical  prolongation  of  the  circum- 
ference (stilted  arch).  The  beams  which  i<  supports 
arc  always  adorned  with  Arabic  inscriptions,  either 
along  their  entire  breadthj  or  interspersed  with  other 

ornaments.  The  arch  never  terminates  directly  in  the 
capital  or  cubical  architrave,  hut  finishes  on  the  side  of 
the  superstructure.  The  inside  of  the  arch  is  qoI 
smooth,  hut  ornamented  with  artistic  decorations  in 
stucco,  winch  depend  in  points  and  resemble  embroid- 
ery, richly  interlaced  and  filigreed  (Figs.  133  and  L34  I, 
whilst  often  they  assume  the  less  pleasing  shape  of 
stalactites  (Fig.  135). 


Fig.    134.      EMBELLISHMENTS  OF   THE 
LOWER  SIDE  OF  ARCHES. 


Fig.    135.      BORDER  OF 
THE   LOWER   SIDE   OF 
AN    ARCH,   RESEMBLING 
STALACTITES. 


136.  The  walls  of  the  various  chambers  are  uniform- 
ly ornamented  after  the  same  system,  but  with  greater 
variety  of  pattern.  The  lower  part  for  about  three  to 
four  feet  in  height  is  inlaid  with  mosaic  of  a  rich  de- 
sign, formed  of  glazed  tiles,  and  ornamented  with  a 
narrow  hand,  over  which  is  a   frieze  with  inscriptions, 


222  EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 

which  also  serve  as  embellishments,  the  letters  being  in 
tertwined  with  the  ornamentations  (compare  Pig.  124). 
Over  this  frieze  there  is  a  square  surrounded  by  a 
border,   which  serves  as  the  chief  embellishment,  and 

resembles  a  large,  carpet  with  patterns  artistically  in- 
terwoven; and  immediately  below  the  ceiling  is  a  broad 
frieze,  which  frequently  has  half-columns  as  supports 
for  the  domes  that  form  the  roof.  These  domes  have  the 
stalactite  form  which  has  previously  been  alluded  to 
(Sect.  130),  consisting  of  small  groups  of  niches  with 
dependent  points. 

The  richness  of  the  various  details  is  worked  up  to 
the  highest  magnificence  by  the  tasteful  variations  of 
coloring,  both  in  the  domes  and  on  the  walls.  The  colors 
are  so  arranged,  that  the  most  softened  are  predomi- 
nant in  the  lower  parts,  the  deepest  on  the  main  surface 
of  the  walls,  whilst  the  most  brilliant  are  employed  on 
the  remote  and  elaborate  portions  of  the  ceiling.  On  or- 
namented surfaces  the  darker  and  more  powerful  colors 
were  generally  introduced  in  the  receding  portions,  and 
in  this  way  were  toned  down  by  the  shading  of  the  more 
prominent  parts,  which  being  gilt  or  painted  in  light 
colors  were  thereby  broughl  into  still  more  prominent 
relief. 

The  various  colors  were  either  separated  from  one 
another  by  white  bands,  or  this  was  effected  by  the  shad- 
ing produced  by  the  relief.  The  harmony  of  the  entire 
surface,  when  painted  in  various  colors  and  covered 
with  ornamentation  in  relief,  was  brought  about  in  the 
most  natural  and  effective  way  by  means  of  gilding. 

137.  By  Ihis  arrangemenl  of  gradual  transition  from 
the  simple  to  tin'  artistic  and  magnificent,  and  by  the 
proportion  of  the  ornamented  surfaces  to  each  other,  in 


EASY  LESSON'S  IN  ARCHITECTURE  223 

spite  of  a  lavish  richness  of  ornamentation,  a  desirable 

harmony  is  attained,  which  causes  the  various  parts  to 
blend  concordantly,  and  produces  a  general  impression 
of  repose.  The  designs  of  the  enrichments  contribute  to 
this  effect,  for  being  on  a  small  scale,  and  not  concen- 
trated or  strongly  marked,  so  as  to  claim  the  eye's  ex- 
clusive attention,  they  do  not  detract  from  the  general 
effect.  The  patterns  in  the  various  panellings  have  oo 
connection  with  each  other,  and  present  the  appearance 
of  detached  carpet-patterns,  without  exercising  any  in- 
fluence on  the  architecture  as  a  whole:  and  even  if  the 
eye  be  arrested  and  employed  by  one  particular  detail,  it 
has  no  power  to  disturb  the  general  survey. 

The  patterns  of  these  embellishments  are,  it  is  true, 
often  very  similar,  but  they  are  never  quite  alike,  in- 
variably differing  in. some  of  their  numerous  combina- 
tions. The  inscriptions  are  introduced  sometimes  in 
bold  Kufic  character,  at  others  with  the  letters  inter- 
lacing both  in  a  horizontal  and  a  vertical  direction,  that 
is  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  wall,  so  that  they 
can  only  be  read  conveniently  by  a  person  in  a  recum- 
bent position. 

138.  It  is  only  in  the  ornamentation  of  these  surfaces 
that  any  artistic  taste  is  displayed  in  Arabian  architec- 
ture in  Spain ;  constructive  forms  are  either  non-existent 
or  thrown  into  the  background.  The  more  new  peculiar- 
ities of  formation  gain  ground,  the  more  do  the  archi- 
tectonic and  constructive  elements  vanish,  and  the  latter 
remain  in  Arabian  architecture  generally,  with  its  in- 
complete knowledge  of  technics,  subordinate  to  the  dec- 
orative principle.  Attention  was  consequently  more  di- 
rected to  the  fantastic  and  elegant,  than  to  the  massive 
and  magnificent. 


224  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


3.     Arabian  Architecture  in  Egypt  and  Sicily. 

139.  Egypt  was  subjected  to  the  sway  of  the  Arabs, 
and  to  Islam  by  the  Caliph  Omar.  It  formed  at  first  a 
province  of  the  Great  Caliphate,  and  though  it  subse- 
quently passed  under  the  rule  of  independent  rulers,  it 
never  again  attained  its  former  prosperity.  The  genius 
of  the  land  remained  as  before  serious  and  gloomy,  and 
continued  to  exercise  an  influence  on  its  artistic  produc- 
tions. 

The  most  important  buildings  of  the  Arabs  in  Egypt 
which  are  known  to  us,  and  from  which  our  opinion  has 
to  be  formed  of  the  style  of  architecture  which  they  in- 
troduced into  that  country,  which  was  modified  by  its 
genius,  are  to  be  found  at  Cairo  or  Musa,  which  was 
founded  in  the  tenth  century,  and  became  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  important  cities  of  the  East. 

The  earlier  buildings,  of  which  the  oldest  is  the 
Mosque  of  Amrou  at  Old  Cairo  founded  in  643,  are 
\i'i-y  simple;  the  latter  ones  are  richer.  The  richest  and 
most  important  mosque  is  that  of  Sultan  Hassan  (Melik- 
el-IIassan),  which  was  constructed  in  the  year  1356  a. 
d.,  i.  < ..  758  of  the  Hegira.  The  design  varies  from  the 
usual  form,  and  the  exterior  is  imposing. 

140.  In  the  buildings  of  Arabian  architecture  in 
Egypt,  a  more  solid  construction  and  more  powerful 
forms  are  perceptible  than  in  the  more  graceful  struc- 
tures in  Spain  and  Persia,  but  still  ;i  thorough  execution 
and  an  organic  perfection  are  wanting.  Its  simplicity 
has  at  times  something  magnificent,  which  borders,  how- 
ever, on  vacuity,  a  fad  which  is  principally  owing  to 
the  deficiency  in  all  definite  constructive  parts. 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE  225 

The  style  of  Arabian  buildings  in  Egypt  and  Sicily  is 
principally  to  be  distinguished  from  those  which  occur 
in  Spain,  India,  and  Persia  by  the  frequent  occurrence 
of  the  pointed  arch,  which  first  came  into  common  use 
among  the  Egyptian  Arabs.  Sometimes  it  occurred  in 
its  simple  shape,  as  in  the  West,  in  the  so-called  Gothic 
style,  but  it  was  generally  depressed  (see  Fig.  117), 
frequently  with  a  straight  prolongation  of  the  haunch. 
The  keel-arch  of  Persia,  and  the  horseshoe  arch  arc  not 
entirely  excluded,  but  they  are  of  rare  occurrence.  Still, 
however,  in  no  building  does  one  distinct  form  of  arch 
occur  to  the  total  exclusion  of  others. 

The  arches  rest  cither  on  pillars,  or  on  plain  or  mould- 
ed piers  adorned  at  the  corners  with  half-columns.  Al- 
though the  arch  construction  is  on  the  whole  predomi- 
nant, it  was  not  used  for  the  vaulting  of  large  spaces, 
which  were,  on  the  other  hand,  provided  with  flat  root's: 
this  was  probably  partly  owing  to  deficiency  in  techni- 
cal knowledge.  When  vaultings  occur,  they  are  general- 
ly secured  by  braces,  beams  and  cement:  whilst  they  are 
often  entirely  of  wood. 

111.  The  mosques,  at  least  the  older  ones,  consist 
(see  Section  125)  of  an  open  court,  in  which  the  side  of 
the  sanctuary  is  only  distinguished  from  the  rest  by 
various  rows  of  columns.  In  the  middle  of  the  court 
stands  the  quadrangular,  or  octagonal  building,  covered 
with  a  dome,  which  is  intended  for  ablutions. 

In  the  minarets  (Fig.  136)  the  slender  circular  shape 
occurs,  as  it  does  in  Persia  and  India,  but  also  the 
square  shape,  with  round  or  octagonal  substructures. 

The  dwelling-houses  are  tasteless  externally,  accord- 
ing to  Oriental  custom,  with  small  windows  pierced 
high  up  in  the  walls,  and  with  overhanging  balconies  in 
the  upper  stories  (Fig.  137),  the  windows  of  which,  as 


226 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  137.     BALCONY  AT  CAIRO. 


Kig.  13G. 
MINARET  AT  CAIRO. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE         227 

well  as  those  of  the  lower  stories,  are  secured  by  wooden 
lattice-work,  which,  with  its  variously  intertwining 
patterns,  forms  the  only,  or,  at  any  rate,  principal 
charm  of  the  exterior  of  the  houses. 

The  interiors,  on  the  other  hand,  display  riches  and 
luxury:  a  spacious  court,  paved  with  various  kinds  of 
marble  or  stone,  in  varied  patterns,  and  provided  with  a 
foundation,  is  surrounded  by  open  vestibules,  beyond 
which  are  the  doors  that  conduct  to  the  various  apart- 
ments, which  also  have  latticed  windows. 

Ornamentation,  as  in  the  Arabian  architecture  in 
Spain,  plays  here  too  an  important  part,  especially  in 
the  embellishment  of  surfaces.  The  same  fantastic  com- 
binations and  the  same  brilliant  coloring  produce  the 
same  effect  and  exhibit  the  same  shortcomings. 

142.  In  the  course  of  the  ninth  century  Sicily  was 
also  subjected  to  the  sway  of  the  Arabs.  After  the 
island  had  attained  great  prosperity  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury under  its  new  masters,  it  was  again  conquered  by 
the  Normans  under  Count  Roger,  1090  a.  d. 

But  the  Arab  element  had  now  become  engrafted  in 
the  population,  and  consequently  the  Norman  chiefs 
favored  and  advanced  the  Arabian  arts  and  sciences 
which  they  found  already  existent,  and  caused  buildings 
to  be  erected  by  Arab  architects,  which  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  those  structures  which  were  reared  during  the 
Christian  rule  of  the  Normans  still  bear  an  Arabian  im- 
press, although  Christian  elements  are  mingled  with 
them. 

Nearly  all  the  numerous  castles  and  towns  which  were 
built  in  Sicily  by  the  Saracens  are  destroyed.  Two 
buildings,  however,  have  been  preserved  at  Palermo,  in 
which  the  style  of  the  Arabs  is  indubitably  recognizable ; 


228 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


the  palaces  of  La  Ziza  and  La  Cuba  (Fig.  138)>  which 
were  creeled  before  the  period  of  Norman  rule,  proba- 
bly in  the  tenth  century.  These  buildings,  which  are  less 
allied  to  Moorish  constructions  in  Spain  than  to  those  at 
Cairo,  have  much  in  common  with  the  latter,  as  the  solid 
workmanship  of  the  material,  the  Long  divisions  of  the 


Fig.  138.   LA  CUBA  AT  PALERMO. 

plain  and  lofty  walls,  and  especially  the  pointed  arch 
and  the  way  it  is  introduced;  and  finally  the  favorite 
embellishment  of  the  fagade  by  the  alternation  of  stone 
or  glazed  tiles  of  different  colors,  which  were  introduced 
in  horizontal  hands. 


4.    Perso- Arabian  Architecture. 


143.  In  consequence  of  the  battle  of  Kadesia,  636 
a.  d.,  the  Persian  rulers  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Sassanides 
were  compelled  to  yield  to  the  Arabs,  who  hurst  upon 
them  with  the  impetuous  fury  which  marked  the  follow- 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE         229 

era  oi*  that  creed  which  rapidly  spread  over  the  whole  of 
Persia.  But  being  a  nomad  race,  and  possessing  few 
acquirements,  and  particularly  no  architecture  of  their 
own,  the  victors  adopted  the  civilization  of  the  con- 
quered people,  in  the  furtherance  of  which  Greek  Chris- 
tians were  also  employed.  Under  the  Abassides,  in  the 
course  of  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  the  Arabian 
and  the  Old-Oriental  elements  were  amalgamated  into 
one  whole.  Bagdad  was  the  splendid  capital  of  this 
dynasty,  where  under  Haroun-al-Raschid,  who  died  in 
809,  arts  and  sciences  were  especially  cultivated:  still 
more  was  this  the  case  under  the  rule  of  Mahmoud 
Jemin-el-Dowlah,  who  died  in  1029  at  Ghazni,  on  the 
confines  of  India  and  Persia. 

In  the  ninth  century  the  artistic  reputation  of  the 
Arabs  was  so  considerable  that  the  Byzantine  Emperor 
Theophilus  caused  a  summer-palace  to  be  constructed 
after  the  design  of  the  palace  of  the  Caliph  at  Bagdad. 
Perso-Arabian  architecture  owes  an  especial  impetus  to 
the  construction  of  fresh  capitals,  which  was  necessitated 
by  the  frequent  change  of  dynasties.  Owing  to  the 
Buides,  whose  seat  was  at  Shiraz  (932-1056),  and  still 
more  owing  to  the  dynasty  at  Ghazni,  on  the  Indian 
border  (977-1184),  Old-Oriental,  that  is  Old  Persian 
and  Indian  elements  exercised  an  ever-increasing  in- 
fluence, and  during  the  rule  of  the  Mongols  (1220-1405), 
as  well  as  under  the  Turkish  races  of  the  Sofides  (from 
1505),  the  same  tendency  was  continued. 

144.  The  strict  difference  of  style  between  these 
epochs,  which  are  thus  designated  by  their  dynastic 
names,  cannot  be  indicated,  owing  to  our  imperfect 
knowledge  of  the  buildings  in  question.  But  still  it  may 
be  gathered  from  the  judgment  of  travellers,  who  could 


230         EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

scarcely  distinguish  old  from  new,  that  110  material  al- 
teration had  supervened  in  the  constructions  of  the  Ma- 
hometan period. 

Our  information,  however,  regarding  the  building's  of 
a  later  period  is  more  accurate;  as,  amongst  others,  of 
those  of  Ispahan,  which  was  founded  by  Shah  Abbas  the 
Great  (a.  d.  1585-1629),  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Sondes,  or 
Sufis.  He  caused  magnificent  buildings,  wThich  were 
mostly  of  public  utility,  such  as  bazaars,  caravansaries 
for  travellers,  consisting  of  quadrangular  or  octagonal 
courts  surrounded  by  halls  and  buildings  of  various 
kinds,  to  be  erected  in  his  capital. 

115.  The  principal  characteristic  of  the  Perso- Ara- 
bian style  is  the  arch.  Although  they  are  sometimes 
round  or  pointed,  still  they  are  generally  broad  with  a 
swelling  line  and  terminal  point,  not  unlike  the  shape  of 
the  keel  of  a  vessel,  and  therefore  called  the  keel-arch 
(see  Fig.  118).  They  are,  however,  devoid  of  con- 
structive importance,  as  they  do  not  serve  to  support 
anything,  but  on  the  other  hand,  require  support  them- 
selves; they  convey  the  impression  of  lightness  and 
freedom,  and  generally  rest  on  broad  piers  without 
columns.  Pillars  appear  only  to  occur  of  wood,  as  sup- 
ports for  horizontal  roofs  in  the  halls  of  the  palaces.  A 
further  essential  component  part,  at  least  in  all  the 
larger  buildings,  is  the  dome.  Whilst  sometimes  of 
simple  hemispherical  shape,  it  frequently  is  slightly  con- 
tracted at  the  base,  and  runs  up  into  a  point  above 
(Fig.  139),  it  has  the  bulging  form  as  in  Russian  archi- 
tecture, but  its  shape  is  nobler  and  more  lofty.  The 
d  mes  are  adorned  with  variegated  colors  in  different 
patterns. 

Internally  the  vaultings  have  the  stalactite  shape,  and 


BAST  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


231 

i  ( lompare 


are  sometimes  formed  of  small  flal    aiches 
Figs.  126  and  127). 

The  mosques  and  palaces  generally  have  portals, 
which  consist  of  a  large  hall  or  recess,  with  a  gleaming 
stalactite  vaulting  of  azure  and  gold.       The  minarets 


Fig.   139.      PBRSO-ARABIAN   PORTAL  WITH  DOME  AND  MINARETS. 


are  slender  and  decorated  with  glazed  tiles  (Fig.  139). 
Private  buildings  are  lightly  constructed  of  tiles,  and 
the  exteriors  are  painted  in  bright  but  not  impleading 
colors,  and  adorned  internally  with  mirrors  and  paint- 
ings from  which  the  human  form  is  not  excluded  for  the 
Persians  do  not  observe  the  prohibition  of  the  Koran  in 


232 


EASV   LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


this  respect.  These  paintings  however,  have  no  artistic 
value,  inasmuch  as  they  are  deficient  in  expression,  shad- 
ing- and  perspective. 


Fig.    140.      SECTIOX    OP    THE    TOMB    OP    SULTAX    KIIODADEXDAH 
(A.  D.  1303—1316)   AT  SULTAXIEII. 


The  Perso-Arabian  system  of  ornamentation  is  not  so 
pine  as  the  Moorish;  an  effort  at  immediate  representa- 
tion of  nature,  such  as  plants  and  flowers,  is  especially 
noticeable. 

Fig.  140  gives  the  section  of  a  tomb  in  the  shape  of  a 
large  octangular  dome. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECT  LKL  233 


5.     Arabian  Architecture  in  India. 

146.  At  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  hordes,  which 
were  principally  Turco-Tartar  in  their  origin,  poured 

irresistibly  into  Hindustan,  and  there  founded  a  perma- 
nent Mahometan  empire,  of  which  the  capital  was  Delhi. 
So  quickly  did  this  city  increase  in  importance  and  pop- 
ulation, that,  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  it  con- 
stituted the  most  brilliant  court  of  the  then  world,  and 
becoming"  the  largest  town  in  the  East,  and  like  a  second 
Rome,  was  filled  with  public  buildings,  mosques,  palaces, 
and  mausoleums.  This  prosperity  reached  its  highesl 
pitch  under  the  rule  of  the  Toglucks  (a.  d.  1321-1398, 
particularly  under  that  of  Feroze),  but  it  collapsed  with 
their  downfall.  For  the  Mongols,  who  under  Timour 
drove  out  the  Tartars,  destroyed  Delhi  in  such  ;i  way 
that  only  insignificant  remains  of  its  former  magnifi- 
cence are  remaining.  A  new  conqueror,  the  Emperor 
Baber,  founded  in  1526  the  dynasty  of  the  great  Moguls, 
whose  residence  was  Agra,  not  far  from  Delhi.  Agra 
soon  threw  the  capital  of  the  former  dynasty  into  the 
shade,  and  was  adorned  with  buildings  of  great  splendor. 
Numerous  specimens  of  their  buildings  are  still  in  exist- 
ence, both  at  Agra  and  at  other  places  in  India,  as,  for 
instance,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  river  Jumna,  which 
testify  to  the  love  of  magnificence  and  the  excellent  tech- 
nical skill  of  these  Tartar  races. 

147.  As  characteristic  of  the  monuments  erected  dur- 
ing the  Pathan  dynasties,  which  flourished  from  the  con- 
clusion of  the  twelfth  century  till  about  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth,  it  must  in  general  be  remarked  that  the 
ruins  of  Old  Delhi  exhibit  an  application  and  pureness 


234  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

of  ornamentation  in  common  with  all  other  Mahometan 
styles,  but  at  the  same  time  they  display  to  larger  pro- 
portions and  dimensions,  and  the  forms  are  grand 
throughout.  The  domes  which  occur  here,  as  in  all 
Mahometan  styles,  are  often  simply  spherical,  surround- 
ed at  the  lower  margin  with  a  circuit  of  battlements  re- 
sembling foliage;  the  walls  are  generally  divided  by 
straight  belts  in  a  perpendicular  and  horizontal  direc- 
tion. The  openings  are  sometimes  spanned  by  simple 
pointed  arches  of  the  form  prevalent  in  the  West,  and  at 
others  with  keel  arches;  and  in  the  case  of  small  pa- 
vilions with  straight  entablatures  resting  on  pillars  or 
piers.  Still  more  development  and  execution  is  evinced 
by  the  monuments  of  Pathan  architecture  which  were 
erected  at  Beejapore  in  the  Deccan.  In  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century  this  place  was  the  capital  of  an  in- 
dependent Mahometan  kingdom,  but  was  subjected  to 
the  Great  Mogul  during  the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  is  now  only  a  city  of  ruins,  where,  how- 
ever, many  splendid  buildings  are  still  standing. 

148.  In  these  structures  there  usually  rises  over  the 
center  of  the  building  the  dome,  surrounded  by  battle- 
ments resting  on  a  platform,  and  with  a  quadrangular 
substructure.  This  dome  is  generally  bulbous  in  shape, 
bulging  out  beyond  the  line  of  its  base,  and  terminating 
in  a  point  above ;  whilst  sometimes,  but  rarely,  it  is  hem- 
ispherical. The  main  plan  of  the  building  is  generally 
square,  and  less  frequently  octagonal.  The  walls  are  al- 
ways divided  by  broad  perpendicular  pilasters  which  are 
connected  by  keel  arches,  whilst  above  them  massive 
rectangular  entablatures  project  obliquely,  which  sup- 
port galleries,  over  which  battlements  of  the  shape  pe- 
culiar to  this  style  of  architecture,  namely,  oval  shaped, 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


235 


pointed  loaves,  form  the  finish.  Octagonal  or  round 
towers  with  small  domes  distinguish  the  corners  of  the 
building.     The  arches  are  always  supported  by  strong 

square  piers  without  capitals. 

The  mosques  have,  as  generally  in  Inaia,  the  snape  of 
a  square,  the  simple,  massive  walls  of  which  are  orna- 
mented with  towers  at  the  corners  (Fig.  141).  The  en- 
trance consists  of  a  large,  projecting,  tower-like  struc- 
ture, with  a  lofty  gate  with  a  keel  arch.    In  the  interior 


Fig.   141.      THE  JUMNA  MOSQUE  AT  DELHI. 


the  court  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a  simple  arcade, 
whilst  the  fourth,  on  which  is  the  sanctuary,  is  raised 
somewhat  higher,  and  the  doors  not  being  shut,  a  view 
into  the  inner  halls  is  obtained.  The  mosques  are  only 
moderately  ornamented  internally,  whilst  the  palaces, 
on  the  other  hand,  which  have  several  stories,  display 
every  possible  richness  in  embellishment. 

119.     The    gorgeous   mausoleums    are   especially    im- 
portant, of  which  that  of  Mahomed  Shah  is  massive  and 


236  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

heavy,  but  still  of  striking  simplicity,  and  possesses  a 

dome  the  span  of  which  exceeds  thai  of  St.  Paul's,  Lon- 
don; while  that  of  his  father,  Ibrahim  Add  Shah,  who 
died  in  1626,  is  lighter  and  more  graceful. 

The  tombs  occupy  the  middle  of  a  tank,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  broad  garden-walks,  accessible  to  the  public, 
and  connected  with  mosques,  from  which  the  monumen- 
tal portion  stands  out  prominently.  This  building  gen- 
erally consists  of  a  square  or  octagon,  bounded  by  towers 
or  minarets,  with  four  large  entrances  spanned  by 
arches,  which  lead  to  the  central  space,  where  the  coffins 
stand  under  the  dome  on  a  raised  platform,  shut  off  by  a 
balustrade,  richly  adorned  with  mosaics.  This  form,  al- 
though the  usual  one,  is  not  of  universal  application,  for 
there  occur,  also,  pyramidal  designs  something  similar  to 
the  Dagoba,  consisting  of  open  halls  with  stories.  The 
richest  and  most  charming  of  all  these  tombs  is  that  of 
the  Ta.je  Mehal. 

In  general  all  these  buildings  exhibit  a  stately  yet 
simple  character,  which  is  decidedly  an  improvement  on 
the  ordinary  Mahometan  styles.  This  is  joined  with  a 
certain  richness  of  details  and  with  the  full  and  luxuri- 
iant  forms  of  the  East,  whilst  here  and  there  the  in- 
fluence of  early  Indian  architecture  gave  rise  to  curious 
details,  which  did  not  correspond  witli  the  otherwise 
noble  forms  of  these  structures,  as,  for  instance,  the  bar- 
barous ornament  of  chains  of  stone  worked  out  of  a 
single  block.  The  style  of  the  buildings  at  Beejapoor  is 
similar  to  that  of  those  at  Agra,  and  the  splendor  of  the 
whole  of  the  designs  corresponds:  the  walls  of  the  in- 
terior are  richly  inlaid  with  mosaics  formed  of  precious 
stones. 

150.     The  magnificent    buildings    with    which    Shah 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE         231 

Jehan-Abad  richly  adorned  New  Delhi  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  are  essentially  the  same  in  style  as  those 
at  Beejapoor,  but  their  character  is  more  elegant  and 
less  stately.  The  forms  still  are,  however,  praiseworthy. 
the  main  lines  are  well  defined  and  uninterrupted,  and 
the  divisions  symmetrical.  The  walls  are  higher  and 
simpler,  the  entablatures  are  less  projecting,  and  the 
bastion-like  corner  towers  do  not  always  occur.  A  very 
customary  composition  consists  of  a  large  gateway  in  the 
center  of  the  wall,  with  a  broad  keel  arch,  on  both  sides 
of  which  the  walls,  which  are  relieved  by  windows  or 
arches,  are  divided  by  perpendicular  belts  and  horizontal 
lines  (Fig.  141). 


6.     Turkish  Architecture. 

151.     The  last  stage  of  Arabian  architecture  is  thai 

of  the  modern  Turkish  Empire. 

After  the  conquest  of  the  Grecian  Empire  by  the 
Turks,  that  people  made  use  of  the  buildings  which  they 
found  ready  at  hand,  as  they  had  done  in  other  in- 
stances previously,  and  they  fell  into  the  Byzantine 
style,  with  the  admixture  of  oriental  forms  in  the  details 

"When,  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453,  Ma- 
homet II.  began  to  adorn  his  new  capital,  he  made  use 
of  Christian  art  and  Christ  inn  architects.  The  Christian 
churches  were  dedicated  to  Islam,  and  under  the  guise  of 
a  mosque,  the  Church  of  Sta.  Sophia  soon  came  to  be 
considered  as  very  sacred.  We  consequently  find  that 
Arabian  architecture,  in  its  Turkish  phase,  did  not  un- 
dergo the  .same  development  as  it  did  in  the  oilier  coun- 
tries  where   Mahometanism   was   the   prevailing   creed. 


238 


EASY   LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Owing  to  this  imitation,  of  existing  Byzantine  forms,  of 
which  the  Church  of  Sta.  Sophia  was  the  highest  model, 
and  to  the  employment  of  the  materials  such  as  pillars. 
&c,  which  were  available  from  the  older  Byzantine 
buildings,  a  very  great  similarity  exists  between  the 
mosque  and  the  Christian  church.  The  principal  differ- 
ence consists  in  the  lively  decoration  of  the  interior,  and 


Fig.  142.   FACADE  OF  THE  SULTAN  AHMED  MOSQUE  AT  CON- 
STANTINOPLE. 


the  introduction  of  inscriptions  instead  of  sculpture, 
which  is  common  to  all  Mahometan  buildings,  and  finally 
in  the  addition  of  slender  minarets  and  the  indispensable 
fore  court. 

The  most  splendid  of  all  the  mosques  of  Constanti- 
nople is  that  of  the  Sultan  Ahmed  (a.  d.  1600)  (Figs. 
142  and  143)  ;  which,  after  Byzantine  fashion,  forms  a 
large  square,  and  supports  in  the  center  a  vast  dome  on 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


239 


massive  fluted  piers;  from  the  central  dome  depend  lour 

semi-domes,  whilst  four  still  smaller  domes  are  intro- 
duced at  the  corners.  In  the  newest  of  the  domes  of  im- 
portance, which  was  completed  by  the  Sultan  Osman  at 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  one  dome  covers  the 
entire  building. 


Fig.   143.      GROUND-PLAN   Fig.   142. 


In  the  architecture  of  palaces  the  modern  western  con- 
struction has  lately  been  adopted  ;it  Constantinople 
and  Alexandria. 

152.  The  essential  particulars  of  the  individual 
Arabian  styles  amongst  the  various  Mahometan  nations 
having  now  been  considered,  it  remains  to  take  a  general 
survey  of  them  when  treated  as  a  whole. 

It  must  firstly  be  remarked  that  owing  to  the  immense 
diffusion  and  difference  of  origin  of  the  nations  which 


240  KASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

embraced  the  creed  of  Mahomet,  and  owing-  to  the  hetero- 
geneousness  of  the  older  native  styles  which  prevailed  at 
the  time  of  its  expansion,  it  was  impossible  that  one  uni- 
form style  should  be  developed  in  one  and  the  same  way, 
although  it  started  from  one  and  the  same  point.  This 
accounts  for  the  little  similarity  that  exists  between 
buildings  in  the  Arabian  style  as  they  occur  in  India  or 
in  Spain,  or  amongst  the  Turks  in  the  Byzantine  em- 
pire. But  in  spite  of  the  heterogeneousness  of  the  na- 
tions of  Islam,  a  common  stamp  is  visible  in  all;  and 
consequently  their  buildings,  although  they  vary  con- 
siderably from  one  another,  display  a  common  peculiar- 
ity, which  distinguishes  them  clearly  from  those  of 
other  nations,  and  which  is  highly  characteristic  of  the 
tendencies  of  Mahometanism. 

153.  Speaking  generally,  a  definite  totality  of  design 
is  wanting  in  Mahometan  buildings;  for  it  is  obvious  at 
the  first  glance  that  the  faulty  forms  of  the  exterior  by 
no  means  correspond  with  those  of  the  rich  and  elab- 
orate interior,  and  that  the  essential"  constructive  parts 
appear  incomplete  and  meaningless.  Unity  of  form  yields 
to  arbitrariness,  as  is  shown  by  the  manner  in  which 
piers  and  pillars,  vaults  and  arches,  of  the  most  differ- 
ent kinds  are  jumbled  together;  so  that  by  the  wanl  of 
constructive  skill  in  the  treatment  of  these  forms,  both 
pillars  and  arches  lose  their  intended  effect,  and  appear 
unreal  and  feeble.  Domes  are  readily  introduced  every- 
where, but  they  are  never  in  organic  connection  with 
their  rectilineal  substructures,  but  always  seem  to  rest 
on  them  in  a  capricious  manner. 

It  must  further  be  remarked  of  Arabian  architecture 
collectively,  that  the  system  of  ornamentation  is  based 
principally  on  the  decoration  of  fiat  surfaces.  The  plastic 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  241 

element  could  not  be  developed  or  even  admitted,  chiefly 
in  consequence  of  the  prohibition  of  sculptural  repre- 
sentations by  the  Koran,  and  partly  because  all  taste  for 
this  branch  of  art  was  wanting. 

The  application  of  the  pointed  arch  is  also  characteris- 
tic of  Arabian  architecture,  but  it  was  not  carried  out 
constructively  and  harmoniously  as  in  the  Gothic  styles 
of  the  West,  but  employed  rather  as  a  decorative  detail. 

154.  From  all  these  peculiarities  viewed  collectively, 
it  appears  that  the  main  characteristics  of  Mahometan 
architecture  are  caprice  and  a  striving  after  contrast. 
The  latter  tendency,  however,  is  manifested  in  such  a 
way,  that,  in  spite  of  all  its  shortcoming,  it  asserts  a 
certain  pre-eminence,  so  that  its  deficiencies  are  not 
always  apparent. 

In  details,  however  much  they  vary  in  the  different 
Mahometan  countries,  the  skill  and  quaintness  of  a  versa- 
tile and  bold  imagination  are  always  manifest. 

155.  Still  more  characteristic  and  universally  met 
with  is  the  stalactite  vaulting-  which  has  been  described 
in  section  130,  as  also  the  decoration  of  the  walls  with 
the  arabesques,  which  are  peculiar  to  Arabian  art,  and 
have  given  their  name  to  that  species  of  ornament. 

These  arabesques  display  so  much  ingenuity  and  taste, 
and  such  variety  and  grace  in  their  designs,  that  they 
attain  perfection  in  their  own  branch,  in  spite  of  the 
exclusion  of  everything  imitative.  Although  regularity 
is  persistently  avoided,  yet  certain  rules  are  recognizable. 
Thus,  for  instance,  the  straight  line,  which  is  employed 
in  most  of  these  ornamentations,  never  forms  a  right 
angle,  at  least  not  one  that  appears  so,  for  when  the  de- 
sign seems  likely  to  produce  one,  the  line  is  slightly  pro- 
longed, so  as  to  bring  about  a  complication  of  the  pat- 


242 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


tern,  or  the  right  angle,  if  already  begun,  is  broken  off, 
and  the  line  produced  in  another  direction,  so  as  to  give 
rise  to  fresh  intricacies.  These  lines  have,  moreover, 
generally  an  oblique  bordering,  so  that  they  never  form 
diagonals  of  the  panelling.  By  the  different  disposition 
of  the  lines,  besides  many    irregular    designs,    various 


rm  kWy  9^A  V^ V 

"til 

■M^^agfe 

kei1m§!!#?j| 

,    1    t^JC 

% 

Jjl 

Vvl 

*M43%Sm^^. 

If 

SlsBitl 

^al\  ■. .  ">~^B 

^f^w^M. 

Ife^Si   -■ 

Jj--'  y     .  Iv^i^-M 

ram  "^a//.\  •         :i  -  -f^ 

tzr. ;  >tea| 

Fig.  144.   MURAL.  DECORATION  AT  THE  ALHAMBRA  AT 
GRANADA. 


polygonal  forms,  such  as  stars,  &c,  are  produced,  the 
lines  of  which  are  extended  beyond  the  point  of  an  in- 
tersection, as  shown  in  Fig.  144.  In  arabesques  in  which 
circular  lines  are  predominant,  the  treatment  is  free,  but 
they  seldom  form  a  circle  or  any  other  mathematical 
figure,  but  rather  flowing  curves,  which  have  a  rich  and 
graceful  effect. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


243 


A  very  simple  and  characteristic  way  of  forming  a 
marked  contrast  is  by  repeating  the  design  in  two  colors 
in  an  inverse  direction.     (Fig.  145.) 


Fig.  145.     ARABESQUE,  WITH  REPETITION  OF  THE  DESIGN  IN  AN 
INVERSE  DIRECTION. 


156.  Colors  are  universally  employed  in  these  arab- 
esques, as  they  are  in  Arabian  art  in  general,  with  great 
taste,  and  with  a  due  appreciation  of  moderation;  not 
only  the  usual  decorative  colors,  as  red.  blur,  white,  and 
gold,  but  also  green,  violet,  brown,  yellow,  and  even 
black.     In  the  lower  decorated  portions  green,  white, 


244  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

Mack,  violet,  blue,  and  dark  yellow  predominate;  on  the 
walls  the  ground  is  red,  the  borders  sky-blue,  and  the 
letters  gold,  while  the  stalactite  domes  and  the  little 
niches  are  generally  gilt,  or  brightly  painted  with  red 
and  blue  enrichments  on  a  white  ground. 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE. 

157.  The  series  of  original  styles  of  architecture 
closes,  strictly  speaking,  with  the  various  styles  that 
have  been  described  in  the  foregoing  divisions  of  this 
work,  for  all  the  new  phases  which  have  presented  them- 
selves in  the  domain  of  architecture  since  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  Gothic  style  are  more  or  less  imitations  of 
what  previously  existed,  or,  at  the  most,  new  combina- 
tions of  elements  which  had  already  been  employed.  The 
manner  of  their  reapplication  exhibits,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  decided  change,  and  many  forms  which  were  un- 
known in  earlier  times  were  developed  in  consequence  of 
this  reapplication,  especially  in  the  later  period  of  the 
Renaissance  style. 

As  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  art 
commenced  to  take  a  new  course  of  development,  which, 
accompanying  the  employment  of  the  pointed  arch  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  prevalence  of  the  Gothic  style, 
was  speedily  extended  in  all  directions. 

The  discovery  of  the  productions  of  the  ancients  in 
statuary  and  painting,  and  the  study  of  these  works  of 
art  which  was  thereby  stimulated,  as  well  as  the  re- 
newed interest  in  classical  literature  which  was  contem- 
poraneously aroused  by  the  long-hidden  stores  of  Greek 
and  Latin  MSS.  being  brought  to  light,  as,  for  instance, 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  245 

the  work  of  Vitruvius  on  the  architecture  of  the  ancients, 
could  not  fail  to  bring  Roman  buildings  into  prominent 
notice,  and  to  predispose  the  public  mind  in  favor  of 
the  classic  style.  Science,  moreover  in  accordance  with 
the  spirit  of  the  age,  began,  like  art,  to  be  classical  rather 
than  romantic. 

A  new  system  was  consequently  developed,  during  the 
first  stages  of  which,  namely,  the  Transition  period,  the 
elements  of  Roman  architecture  came  again  into  use,  al- 
though the  forms  which  belong  to  the  Later  Romanesque 
period,  as,  for  instance>  the  division  of  the  window- 
arches  by  mullions,  were  not  entirely  abandoned. 

158.  This  new  style  of  architecture,  which  is  known 
by  the  distinctive  name  of  the  Renaissance,  that  is  to  say, 
the  new  birth  of  Roman  architecture,  first  sprang  into 
existence  in  Italy  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  It  reached  its  zenith  in  that  country 
in  the  course  of  the  same  century,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  the  following  became  a  model  for  all  other  countries, 
in  which,  howrever,  the  Gothic  style  prevailed  for  some 
time  longer,  and  maintained  its  ground  against  the  en- 
croachments of  its  rival.  In  Italy,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Pointed  style  "was  abandoned,  except  in  isolated  in- 
stances, and  notably  in  Lombardy.  The  style  which  was 
thus  introduced  into  the  countries  north  of  the  Alps  was 
consequently  accepted  there  as  one  which  was  already 
developed,  and  the  buildings  constructed  in  it  were  mere 
imitations  of  the  Italian;  moreover,  after  it  was  intro- 
duced, it  underwent  no  further  change  or  development, 
and  on  that  account  was  designated,  especially  in  Ger- 
many, as  the  Italian  style.  It  will  therefore  be  sufficient 
to  describe  its  phases  and  characteristics  as  they  appear 
in  Italian  buildings. 


246  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

The  same  reasons  which  militated  against  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Gothic  style  in  Italy  were  instrumental  in 
occasioning  the  ready  and  definite  acceptance  in  that 
country  of  the  forms  of  ancient  architecture.  The  large 
number  of  monuments  of  classical  antiquity  existing  in 
Italy  must  have  been  favorable  to  the  change,  particular- 
ly as  their  influence  had  remained  effective  during  the 
whole  period  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

159.  At  the  early  epoch  of  its  existence  the  new  style 
of  architecture  displays  not  so  much  an  alteration  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  spaces  and  of  the  main  features  of 
the  buildings,  as  in  the  system  of  ornamentation  and  in 
the  aspect  of  the  profiles.  The  object  and  construction 
of  the  buildings  of  the  period  in  question  were  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  colossal  monuments  of  ancient  Rome, 
which  were  now  to  serve  as  an  example,  and  consequently 
the  model  was  mainly  copied  in  the  decorative  details, 
principally  in  the  columnar  orders  with  their  various 
entablatures.  It  is  owing  to  this  cause  that  the  facades 
appear  to  a  certain  degree  to  be  merely  appendages  to 
the  main  building.  Architects,  moreover,  could  not  at 
once  abandon  the  customary  freedom  of  conception 
which  had  been  permissible  in  the  Romanesque  style,  nor 
subject  their  imagination  to  the  strict  rules  of  Roman 
architecture  by  surrendering  all  endeavors  to  attain 
picturesque  effects.  Roman  architecture  was  consequent- 
ly not  at  first  a  model  which  secured  that  slavish  obedi- 
ence which  became  its  prerogative  in  later  times.  At  the 
outset,  moreover,  the  essential  character  of  Roman  archi- 
tecture was  not  fully  understood,  as  far  as  material  and 
construction  are  concerned.  It  was  consequently  only  in 
the  case  of  buildings  which  did  not  require  a  total  aban- 
donment of  the  prevalent  style  that  Roman  architecture 
was  at  first  employed. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


247 


In  accordance  with  the  tendency  of  the  age,  eccle- 
siastical architecture,  which  had  assumed  such  promi- 
nence during  the  prevalence  of  the  Byzantine,  Roman- 


Fig.  146.     VIEW  OF  A  PORTION  OF  THE  CERTOSA  AT  PAVIA. 


esque,  and  Gothic  styles,  was  now  thrown  into  the  back- 
ground, whilst  the  style  of  the  Renaissance  was  brought 
to  the  front  in  the  construction  of  castles  and  p&laees. 


248 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


The  varieties  that  occur  in  the  style  of  the  Renaissance 
are  therefore  not  to  be  considered,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
previous  styles,  as  the  result  of  time  and  national  pecu- 
liarity, but  rather  as  the  effects  of  individual  and  as- 
sumptive personal  conceptions. 

The  first  period  of  this  modern  style  of  architecture  is 
also  its  brightest  one.  The  facade  of  the  Certosa  at 
Pavia  (Fig.  146)  may  be  cited  as  the  most  notable  in- 
stance. This  was  begun  by  Ambrogio  Borgognone  in 
147!.  and  is  very  rich  in  sculpture;  but  the  rest  of  the 
building,  with  the  exception  of  the  dome,  which  is  also 
Renaissance,  belongs  still  to  the  Gothic  period. 


Pig.     147.       BOSSAGE    OR    RUSTIC-WORK. 


During  the  early  period  the  endeavor  was  maintained 
to  adapt  classical  forms  with  more  or  less  freedom  to 
modem  buildings,  whilst  later,  that  is  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  a  scheme  based  on  ancient  architecture  was 
universally  prescriptive.  Two  distinct  styles  belong  to 
this  first  period,  each  possessing  its  especial  peculiarities. 
These  are:  The  Early  Florentine  and  Early  Venetian 
Renaissance  styles. 

In  the  Roman   Renaissance  the  system  of  the  second 

period,    which    confines    itself    more    closely    to    classical 
elements,  is  more  prevalent.     This  Roman  Renaissance 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  249 

was  subsequently  mosl  widely  extended,  and  was  intro- 
duced into  Venice,  and  to  a  less  degree  into  Florence. 

The  invention  of  printing  exercised  a  considerable  in- 
fluence on  the  development  of -this  second  system.  The 
works  of  Vitruvius  were  translated  into  Italian  and 
printed  in  1521,  and  were  soon  extensively  circu- 
lated. Owing  to  the  tendency  and  predilection  for  clas- 
sical antiquity  which  were  then  beginning  to  be  dis- 
played, as  well  as  to  the  scanty  knowledge  of  Roman 
architecture  which  the  world  then  possessed,  it  is  not  to 
be  wondered  at  that  these  works  soon  came  to  be  viewed 
as  an  authority.  But  although  the  writings  of  Vitruvius, 
and  laws  of  architecture  based  on  the  classical  monu- 
ments themselves,  were  considered  as  authoritative,  still 
the  traditional  forms  were  employed  in  a  new  spirit  and 
in  a  new  manner.  A  striving  for  the  picturesque  is  per- 
ceptible amidst  the  massiveness  of  the  new  style.  At 
first  this  tendency  was  confined  within  discreet  bounds. 
but  after  the  first  twenty  years  of  the  sixteenth  century 
it  was  extended  to  an  undue  degree. 

160.  The  Pitti  palace,  which  was  constructed  by 
Brunelleschi,  may  be  considered  as  the  lasting  type  of 
the  Florentine  Renaissance  style,  at  least  as  far  as  the 
architecture  of  palaces  is  concerned.  These  palaces  as  is 
shown  by  Figs.  149  and  150)  are  constructed  in  rustic- 
work,  that  is  to  say,  of  large  blocks  of  stone  with  broad 
joints,  of  which,  during  the  early  period,  only  the 
splayed  or  rounded  beds  and  joints  were  dressed,  but  at 
a  later  epoch  these  ashlar-blocks  were  more  elegantly 
treated,  and  rustication  was  of  more  frequent  occurrence. 
The  effect  of  this  bulky  rustic-work  is  considerably 
heightened  by  its  advancing  prominently  before  the  line 
of  the  facade;  indeed  this  projection  is  often  to  the  ex- 


250 


EASY  I.ESsoxs  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


tent  of  from  a  liali*  to  a  -whole  foot.  The  facade,  which 
thus  obtains  an  appearance  of  greal  solidity  (Fig.  148), 
is  terminated  by  a  very  massive  and  widely  projecting 
cornice  supported  by  consoles,  and  is  pierced  by  windows 
with  semi-circular  heads  and  deeply-moulded  architraves. 
The  windows  constitute  a  space  which,  being  kept  plain, 
forms  ;i  pleasing  contrast  with  the  heavy  appearance  of 


Fig.    148.      STROZZI    PALACE    AT    FLORENCE. 


the  whole  facade  and  a  far  from  unharmonious  effect 
being  thereby  produced,  the  building  seems  to  be  relieved 
and  animated.  The  windows  are  divided  by  a  small  slial't 
into  two  halves,  after  the  medieval  fashion,  and  these 
arc  both  spanned  by  a  semicircle  over  the  impost  of  the 
arch  of  the  whole  window.  Between  these  two  small 
semicircles  and  the  main  arch  of  the  window  there  is 
generally  inserted  a  circle,  at  the  sides  of  which  are 
formed  small  triangular    panels,    which    are    sometimes 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITEl  TUKE 


251 


pierced  with  tracery  work,  or  occupied  with  an  enrich- 
ment of  foliage,  -whilst  at  others  the  panels  arc  left  oear- 
ly  plain. 


Fig.    149.      RICCARDI    PALACE    AT    FLORENCE. 


Aii  expression  of  great  massiveness  is  the  main  char- 
acteristic of  this  Florentine  style,  which  was  principally 
applied  in  the  architecture  <>t*  the  palaces.     The  forms 


601  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

which  were  borrowed  from  the  Roman  columnar  con- 
struction do  not  in  this  style,  as  they  do  more  or  less  in 
the  other  style  of  the  Renaissance,  constitute  a  pseudo- 
architecture.  The  massiveness,  however,  of  the  Florentine 
palaces  conveys  rather  the  notion  of  a  fortress  than  of 
the  mansion  of  a  wealthy  nobleman,  and  this  impression 
is  increased  by  the  smallness  of  the  windows  in  com- 
parison with  the  rest  of  the  building.  This  is  especially 
the  case  with  those  facades  which  are  entirely  construct- 
ed of  considerably  projecting  ashlar  of  irregular  size, 
and  to  a  less  degree  in  the  case  of  those  the  lowest  story 
of  which  alone  displays  these  large  undressed  blocks 
(Fig.  149). 

Those  palaces  which  like  the  back  of  the  Strozzi  Palace 
(Fig.  150),  are  constructed  of  dressed  blocks  with  a  less 
decided  projection,  present  a  more  elegant  appearance. 

161.  The  Florentine  palaces  which  have  just  been 
alluded  to  are,  generally  speaking,  less  suitable  than  all 
other  varieties  of  the  Renaissance  style  for  reproduction 
and  imitation  in  the  mansions  and  dwelling-houses  of  our 
aristocracy  and  citizens.  At  any  rate  important  modi- 
fications would  have  to  be  carried  out,  such  as  a  toning 
down  of  the  too  prominent  masonry  blocks,  and  the  total 
avoidance  of  that  roughness  which  must  necessarily  en- 
sue from  the  employment  of  blocks  of  unequal  size  and 
arranged  after  an  irregular  fashion. 

There  exist,  however,  a  few  Florentine  palaces  of  a 
smaller  type,  which  externally  present  a  more  habitable 
appearance.  In  these  rustic-work  is  not  the  all-important 
feature,  but  it  is  only  employed  for  the  quoins  of  the 
facade,  though  it  sometimes  extends  to  the  whole  of  the 
ground-floor.  The  roof,  which  projects  very  consider- 
ably, and  shows  the  wooden  construction,  is  not  in  ac- 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


253 


Fig.  150.   STROZZI  PALACE  AT  FLORENCE. 


25  1 


EASY  LESSONS  IN   AKCIIITKC'TURE 


eordance  with  the  rest  of  the  architectural  features  of 
the  facade,  nor  is  it  supported  by  a  strong,  enough 
cornice.  Sometimes  the  upper  story  forms  an  open  ar- 
cade, as  in  Pig.  151.  The  figures  and  embellishments  in 
sgraffitto  which  are  introduced  in  this  facade  are  not  a 


liii  I 


nun'      ..    Jk         a  In  i 


Fig.    151.       GANDAGIN    PALACE    AT    FLORENCE. 


necessary  feature  in  these  Florentine  palaces.  This 
method  of  ornamentation  is  also  met  with  in  exceptional 
instances  in  some  of  the  Roman  palaces. 

The  creations  of  Alberti  form  a  class  apart  in  Floren- 
tine palace  architecture,  for  they  do  no1  display  the  pe- 
culiarities of  the  Florentine  style  which  have  just  been 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


255 


mentioned,  bu1  rather  accommodating  the  forms  of  the 
antique  t<>  more  modern  requirements,  they  pointed  out 
the  road  which  was  followed  by  the  Roman  Renaissance 

style,  especially  at  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  As  will  be  seen  from  Fig.  152,  these  buildings 
are,  to  a  certain  extent,  free  from  mediaeval  sympathies, 
and  approach  more  closely  to  the  classical  models. 


Fig.  152.   PART  OF  THE  FACADE  OF  THE  RUCELLAI  PALACE 
AT  FLORENCE. 


162.  The  simplicity  of  the  Florentine  palace-archi- 
tecture is  also  displayed  in  the  design  of  the  vestibules, 
which  consists  either  of  a  narrow  passage  covered  with  a 
vault  and  leading  up  to  the  staircase,  or  at  the  most  of  a 
gateway.  Sometimes  this  defect  is  lessened  by  a  small 
court  being  attached  to  the  vestibule,  as,  for  instance,  in 


256 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


the  ease  of  the  G-ondi  Palace,  which  was  constructed  by 
San  Gallo. 

During  t he  early  period  of  the  Florentine  Renaissance 
the  simple  basilica  shape  was  generally  chosen  for 
churches  of  San  Lorenzo  and  San  Spirito  were  con- 
structed in  this  style  at  Brunelleschi ;  but  subsequently, 


Fig.    153.      VBNDRAMIN    PALACE   AT    VENICE,    BY  PIETRO 
LOMBARDO. 


as  elsewhere  in  Italy,  the  "Roman  vaulted  forms,  after 
the  model  of  St.  Peter's,  in  conjunction  with  the  domical 
construction,  were  universally  employed,  even  in  the  case 
of  small  churches. 

163.     The  Venetian  Renaissance  style  first  sprang  into 
existence  Inwards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE         257 

flourished  till  the  close  of  the  sixteenth.  This  style,  liko 
the   Florentine,  comprises  various  shades  of  difference, 

.•mil  is  principally  remarkable  in  connection  with  the 
architecture  of  palaces.  The  arrangement  remains  sim- 
ilar to  the  ancient  Venetian  system,  as  Ear  as  regard^  the 
interna]  distribution  of  spaces  and  the  division  of  the 
r ,- 1 1 ; ; i ( 1  < •  into  main  groups,  whilst  the  individual  details, 
as,  for  instance,  the  columns  and  arches,  are  constructed 
in  accordance  with  the  Roman  system.  Whilst  the  Flor- 
entine palaces  present  an  imposing  appearance,  by  their 
simple  massiveness,  and  strike  the  beholder  as  severe  and 
gloomy,  the  Venetian  palaces,  on  the  other  hand,  offer  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  same  by  the  elegance  and  rich- 
ness of  their  architecture. 

164.  A  certain  originality  and  freedom  of  invention 
is  perceptible  in  the  buildings  of  the  early  period  of  the 
Venetian  Renaissance  style;  the  old  style  is  happily 
blended  with  the  new.  which  during  this  first  stage  is 
still  imbued  with  Romanesque  conceptions  (Fig.  153). 

A  method  of  decoration  is  peculiar  to  these  buildings 
which  appears  to  have  been  borrowed  from  Byzantine 
models.  Fine  marbles  of  various  colors,  of  which  red 
porphyry  and  green  serpentine  are  the  most  frequent, 
are  inserted  in  circular  and  angular  panels  and  border- 
ings,  and  form  a  sort  of  mosaic-work.  This  style  i  f  or- 
namentation is  employed  both  in  churches  and  palaces, 
and  gives  a  peculiarly  rich  and  elegant  appearance  to 
the  facades.  Another  peculiarity  which  was  borrowed 
from  the  Byzantine  style  consists  in  the  employment  of 
semi-circular  gables,  both  in  churches,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Santa  Maria  dei  Miracoli,  and  also  in  public  palaces, 
of  which  the  Scuola  di  San  Marco  is  a  brilliant  example 
(Fig.  154). 


258 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


A  beautifully  picturesque  effect  is  often  produced  in 
Venetian  palaces  by  their  effective  composition,  see  Figs. 
153  and  155. 

165.  In  the  first  or  transition  stage  of  the  new  style, 
that  is  to  say,  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  and  beginning 


Fig.    154. 


FACADE  OF  THE   SCUOLA   DI   SAN   MARCO  AT  VENICE  ; 
NOW   A  HOSPITAL. 


of  the  sixteenth  centuries,  the  productions  of  Pietro  and 
Martino  Lombardo  are  especially  noteworthy  (see  Figs. 
153  and  154).  A  more  determined  imitation  of  Roman 
architecture  is  subsequently  perceptible  in  the  produc- 
tions of  San  Miehele  during  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


259 


century.  The  conceptions  cf  this  architect  had  a  con- 
siderable influence  on  his  contemporaries  and  successors. 
and  display  a  certain  independence  and  originality  (Fig. 
155).  Next  in  order  are  the  productions  of  Jacopo  Tatti, 
or  Sansovino,  who  was  born  in  1479,  and  died  in  1570. 


Fig.    155.      GRIMANI   PALACE   AT   VENICE,    BY   SAX   MICHE 


This  architect  was  educated  in  the  Florentine  school,  and 
afterwards  proceeded  to  Rome  ;  his  masterpieces  are  less 
powerful  and  imposing,  but  on  the  other  hand  are  more 
graceful,  and  display  more  richly  developed  details  than 
these  of  San  Miehele  (see  Fig.  156).  In  these  buildings. 
as  well  as  in  the  Vendramin  Palace  by  Pietro  Lombardo, 


2fi0 


EASY   LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.    156.      THE   OLD    LIBRA  It  V    OF    ST.    MARK   AT   VENICE,    BY 
SANSOVINO. 


which  belongs  to  the  first  period,  the  differenl  stories  of 
the  facade  are  ornamented  by  orders  of  half  or  three- 
quarter  columns,  which  arc  placed  at  the  sides  of  the 
openings,  whieh  themselves  have  semi-circular  heads,  and 
the  facade  is  consequently  less  stiff  and  heavy  than  it 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ABCHITECTUEE         261 

appears  in  instances  where  Roman  architecture  was  more 

strictly  and  decisively  employed. 

165.  Another  modification  of  the  style  which  con- 
formed more  closely  to  the  Roman  models  and  to  the  pre- 
cepts of  Vitruvius  than  the  architecture  which  has  been 
mentioned   in  the    preceding    paragraph,    was    shortly 


■"  ■ "  m  ^iJijR^aaaBspjsr^ 


Fig.    157.      PALACE   AT    VICEXZA,    BY    PALLADIO. 


afterwards  introduced  by  Palladio.  It  is  consequently 
only  in  a  local  point  of  view  that  il  can  be  designated  as 
Venetian,  because  as  regards  style  it  falls  under  the  cate- 
gory of  the  Roman  Renaissance.  Palladio,  who  became  the 
special  champion  of  this  style  of  architecture,  was  horn 
at  Vicenza  in  1518,  and  died  in  1580.  He  was  undoubted- 
ly a  man  of  great  talent,  and,  after  Michel-Angelo,  exer- 
cised,   perhaps,   more  influence  than  anyone  else  on  ar- 


262 


EAS"S   LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECT!  KK 


ehitecture.  Still  the  introduction  of  great  confusion  of 
ideas  is  attributable  to  this  architect,  for  he  adorned 
buildings  of  every  kind  and  of  most  varied  purposes  and 


Fl?.    158.      HALF  OF   THE    FACADE   OF   A    PALACE   AT   VICENZA, 
BY    PALLADIO. 


arrangement  with  classical  temple  portals,  without  tak- 
ing into  consideration  their  object  or  the  requirements  of 
the  building  as  a  whole,  so  that  the  order  was  frequently 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


263 


carried  up  through  several  stories  withoul  any  reference 
to  its  arrangement,    Bui  although  these  reproductions  if 

columns  and  the  employment  of  pilasters  were  meaning- 


Fig.    159.      ST.    SAVIOUR'S,    VENICE,    BY   PALLADIO. 


less  in  themselves,  they  served,  in  a  merely  decorative 
point  of  view,  to  give  a  striking  appearance  to  the  bv'i1  '- 
bags  (Fig.  157). 

The  lower  story  of   palaces    built    by    Palladio,    th* 
greater  part  of  which  are  at  Vicenza,  is  generally  of  rus- 


264 


EASY  LESSONS  IN   AKCHlTKl  Tl'UK 


tie  work,  whilst  the  upper  stories  have  pilasters  or  a 
colonnade;  occasionally,  however,  pilasters  or  arcades 
are  introduced  on  the  ground-floor  (Fig-.  158). 

More  than  one  cause  served  to  render  the  compositions 
of  Palladio  so  celebrated.    He  possessed  an  especial  folic 
ity  in  the  arrangement  of  his  ground-plans,  particularly 
in  instances  where  he  had  an  unlimited  space  at  his  dis- 
posal.   His  command,  moreover,  of  good  proportion,  ren- 


Fig     160.      VILLA,    BY    PALLADIO. 


dered  his  combinations  of  civic  and  sacred  buildings 
most  pleasing  to  the  eye;  whilst  the  columnar  arrange- 
ment of  his  entrances  conveyed  an  agreeable,  and  at  the 
same  time  dignified,  impression  (Figs.  159  and  160). 
Consequently  the  works  of  Palladio,  although  often  com- 
posed of  heterogeneous  elements,  remained  for  a  long 
period  the  model  for  an  entire  style;  and  even  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  when  the  total  deterioration  of 
architecture,  as  exemplified  in  what  is  called  by  the 
Germans  "the  Zopf-und-Perriicken  Sty  1  (pigtail  and 
periwig  style),  led  architects  again  in  the  direction  of 


EAST  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


•J»;:, 


the  classical,  the  designs  of  Palladio  became  anew  a  sub- 
ject of  study.  Even  in  the  present  day  they  are  often 
immoderately  praised  by  those  who  are  not  really  con- 
versant with  the  principles  and  requirements  of  art,  ami 
who  are  ignorant  of  the  history  of  the  development  of 
architecture. 


Fig.    161.      THE    DELLA   SALUTE    CHURCH   AND    CUSTOM    HOUSE. 


The  most  noteworthy  of  the  successors  i  I  Palladio  at 
Venice  were  Scamozzi,  and  Longhena,  the  architect  of 
the  Delia  Salute  church  I  Pig.  161). 

Some  of  the  churches  of  this  style  retain  the  Byzantine 
system  of  the  Greek  cross  with  barrel-vaultings  and  a 
central  dome  resting  on  four  pillars  or  piers.     Others, 


266 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


again,  have  the  form  of  the  basilica,  but  with  a  system  of 
vaulting  of  their  own,  which  produces  a  beautiful  ef- 
fect. This  system  consists  of  a  series  of  large  domes  in 
the  nave,  and  of  smaller  domes  in  the  aisles,  all  resting 
on  pierced  masses  of  masonry  with  barrel- vaultings  con- 
nected with  them,  as,  for  instance,  San  Salvatore. 


Fig.  162.   FACADE, OF  A  PALACE  OF  ROUGH  BRICK  AT  BOLOGNA. 


166.  Owing  to  the  rarity  and  expensiveness  of  free 
stone  in  Upper  Italy,  an  architectural  style  in  brick  was 
developed  side-by-side  with  that  which  has  just  been 
touched  upon.     This  material  had  already  been  employed 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ABCHITECTUBE  267 

in  the  foregoing-  period  for  churches,  and  it  now  came  in- 
to frequent  use  in  the  construction  of  the  palaces.  Bo- 
Logna  is  especially  rich  in  palaces  of  this  dascription, 
which,  with  an  admixture  of  earlier  forms,  belongs  for 
the  most  part  to  the  Early  Renaissance,  with  semicircles 
for  the  heads  of  the  opening's,  as  was  necessitated  by  the 
character  of  the  material  (Fig.  162).  The  easy  multipli- 
cation of  the  ornamental  parts  in  burnt  clay,  generally 
led  to  an  undue  increase  of  the  decorative  element.  In- 
asmuch as  the  main  streets  of  Bologna  have  arcades  run- 
ning along  them  of  which  the  individual  palaces  only 
embrace  a  portion,  these  buildings  do  not  present  the 
appearance  of  being  totally  detached,  but  seem  rather 
parts  of  the  entire  front  of  the  street,  and  show  much 
similarity  in  the  architecture  of  their  facades  with  that 
of  the  arcades  themselves. 

167.  The  Roman  Renaissance  style.  The  Roman 
Renaissance  style  displays  likewise  several  variations  or 
shades  of  difference,  although  the  diversities  are  net  so 
striking  as  in  the  Venetian.  Whilst  the  intellectual  ten- 
dency which  caused  and  fostered  the  Renaissance  in 
Italy  owed  its  origin  mainly  to  Florence,  and  was  culti- 
vated in  that  town  and  in  Upper  Italy,  Rome  was  suffer- 
ing under  very  unfavorable  circumstances.  Brunellesclii, 
Alberti,  Michelozzo,  Benedetto '  da  Majano,  Cronaca, 
Sansovino,  and  others  who,  feeling  the  power  and  worth 
of  the  ancient  monuments  of  Rome,  began  to  make  a 
study  of  them,  and  thus  gave  an  impulse  to  the  resuscita- 
tion of  Roman  architecture,  were  no  Roman  artists.  It 
was  only  when  the  poetic  breath  of  the  first  inspiration 
had  vanished  that  Rome  began  definitely  to  play  its  own 
part  in  the  Renaissance,  and  to  mark  out  and  limit  the 
manifold  variations  which  had  been  brought  about  by 


268  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

the  most  prominent  architects  of  the  different  schools. 
The  first  and  most  importanl  school  of  the  Roman 
Renaissance  was  originated   by   Donato  Lazzari,  known 

under  the  name  of  Bramantc  v1444  to  1514)  ;  this  was 
joined  by  Balthazar  Peruzzi  and  Antonio  di  Sangallo; 
another  school  was  represented  by  Giacomo  Barozzio, 
known  as  Vignola  (1507  to  1573),  whilst  a  third  was  di- 
rected by  Michel- Angelo  Buonarotti  (1474  to  1564),  and 
by  its  arbitrary  character  formed  a  stepping-stone  to  the 
Rococo  style  which  succeeded  it. 

It  was  the  productions  of  the  above-mentioned  archi- 
tects, as  well  as  those  of  some  others  of  note,  which  main- 
ly determined  the  future  course  of  the  Roman  Renais- 
sance style,  and  that  not  for  Rome  only,  but  for  all 
countries;  for  the  palaces  and  churches  of  Rome  came 
gradually  to  be  regarded  as  models,  and  the  Roman 
Renaissance  style  was  extended  over  the  whole  civilized 
world  both  during  the  period  of  its  prime  and  that  oil 
its  deterioration. 

Except  during  the  period  of  transition,  the  Roman 
monuments  and  the  rules  gathered  from  the  writings 
of  Vitruvius,  were  in  general  adhered  to.  When,  how- 
ever, the  antique  forms  did  not  suit  the  buildings  which 
new  requirements  and  customs  necessitated,  an  arbi- 
trary deviation  was  considered  permissible,  without  the 
rules  in  question  being  totally  abandoned.  A  dry 
method  of  treatment  is  the  result,  which  contrasts  un- 
favorably with  the  freer  and  more  poetic  transition 
period  from  the  Romanesque  to  the  Classical  style. 

At  the  period  of  the  earliest  development  of  the  Ro- 
man Renaissance,  free  treatment,  after  the  Romanesque 
method,  is  exhibited  in  a  much  less  degree  than  in  the 
Florentine  and  Venetian  styles;  but  on  the  other  hand 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


269 


the  Roman  Renaissance  was  from  the  commencement 
much  more  correct  as  regards  its  conformity  to  the  ideas 
of  ancient   Roman  architecture. 

168.  The  productions  of  Bramante  himself,  who  was 
the  first  Roman  architect  of  note,  display  two  different 
tendencies,  of  which  the  earlier,   having   its  origin    in 


\ 


Fig.  163.   PART  OF  THE  FACADE  OF  THE  CANCELLER1A  AT 
ROME. 


Upper  Italy,  exhibits  more  originality  together  with 
Romanesque  proclivities,  as  for  instance  the  Choir  of 
the  Church  of  S.  Maria  delle  Grazie  at  Milan;  whilst 
the  later  is  more  strictly  in  conformity  with  the  an- 
tique; a  result  which  was  brought  about  by  the  archi- 


270 


EASY  LESSONS  IX   ARCHITECTURE 


tect's  study  of  ancient  Roman  monuments.  The  most 
remarkable  productions  of  Bramante  at  Rome  are  the 
Cancelleria  Palace  (Fig.  163),  with  the  Church  of  San 
Lorenzo  in  Daaso  contained  within  its  precincts,  the 
Giraud  Palace,  now  the  Torlonia  (Fig.  164  and  Fig. 
16.")  with  details  of  the  same),  and  the  Court  of  the 
Vatican,  with  the  celebrated  Loggie,  decorated  by  Ra- 
phael.    Bramante  also   drew   the  plan   of  St.   Peter's, 


Fig.    104.      GIRAUD    PALACE    AT    ROME. 


which  was  afterwards  subjected  to  so  many  alterations. 
According  to  the  original  design,  the  church  was  to 
have  been  constructed  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross, 
with  each  of  the  four  ends  terminating  in  a  semi-circle, 
and  with  a  central  dome.  In  the  severer  forms  of  this 
architect's  productions  a  poverty  and  insipidity  is  al- 
ready discernible,  which  contrasts  strongly  with  the 
more  imaginative  and  poetic  treatment  of  other  struc- 
tures which  are  remarkable  for  their  gracefulness.     A 


BAST  LESSONS  IN  ARC111TKCTURE 


271 


want  of  power  in  details  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
of  Bramante's  failings,  and  this  of  course  is  more  no- 
ticeable in  his  later  productions,  when  ancient  Roman 
models  Mere  his  study,  than  in  his  earlier  works. 


Fig.    165.      DETAILS    OF    Fig.    164    ON    AN    ENLARGED    SCALE. 


169.  The  pupils  of  Bramante  and  other  renowned 
architects  pursued  the  path  which  he  had  marked  out ; 
as,  for  example.  Balthazar  Peruzzi  (1481  to  1536.  Pig. 
166)  ;  as  the  principal  of  his  works  may  be  mentioned 


272 


EASY   LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


the  Farnesina  al  Rome:  Ant.  di  Sangallo  of  Florence 
(died    1546),    whose    principal    work    in    the    Farnese 

Palace  at  Rome  (see  Fig.  167,  and  parts  of  the  same 
on  an  enlarged  scale  in  Figs.  168,  169,  170).  The 
third  story  of  this  palace  is,  however,  the  work  of 
Michel-Angelo.     The  Farnese  Palace  forms  to  a  certain 


jjlH 


Fig.  166.   SMALL  PALACE  AT  ROME,  BY  BALTHAAZAH  PBRUZZI. 


extent  the  type  of  a  distinct  class  in  the  architecture 
of  Roman  palaces,  and  its  child'  characteristics  is,  that 
the  facades  are  not  divided  by  any  orders  of  columns 
or  pilasters,  as  for  instance  in  Fig.  166;  but  the  same 
effect  and  impressions  are  produced  by  the  architraves, 
cornices,  and  plinths  of  the  windows,  which  invariably 
have  rectilineal  terminations,  as  well  as  the  doors,  and 
also  by  the  string-courses  which  divide  the  stories,  and 
by  a  far-projecting  cornice:  at  the  same  time  especial 
consideration   is  devoted  to  the  effed   of  good   propor- 


i:\sv   LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


273 


lions.  Ornaments  are  but  sparingly  introduced;  whilst, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  corners  are  generally  marked  by 
nisi  ications. 

These  palaces  convey  the  impression  of  solidity  with- 
out cumbersomeness,  of  richness  without  luxury,  and 
above  all,  of  simplicity  in  conjunction  with  dignity. 

In  the  constructions  of  Bramante's  nephew  and  pupil, 
the  celebrated  painter,  Raphael  Sanzio  (1483  to  1520), 
there    is    perceptible    a    certain    tendency    towards    pie- 


Fig.  167.   FARNESE  PALACE  AT  ROME. 


turesque  effect  and  attention  to  detail:  this  is  evidenced 
in  the  palaces  built  by  him  at  Rome,  and  especially 
in  those  at  Florence:  but  this  tendency  is  displayed 
with  more  freedom  in  the  works  of  Raphael's  pupil, 
(Jiulio  Romano  (1492  to  1546),  who,  amongst  other 
works,  was  the  architect  of  the  Villa  Madama  at  Rome, 
and  the  Palace  Del  Te  at  Mantua. 

170.  Another  school,  which  displays  a  still  stricter 
imitation  of  classical  forms  than  that  of  which  Bra- 
mante  was  the  founder,  was  represented  and  advocated 
by  Qiacomo  Barozzio,  who  is  known  under  the  name  of 


274 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.     109.       CORNICE    OF    Fig.    167 
ON    AN    ENLARGED    SCALE. 


Fig.    170.      WINDOW   OF   THE 

LPPER   STORY   OF   THE   FACADE 

OF     THE    FARNESE    PALACE    IN 

Fig.    169. 


Fig.    108.    PORTION    OF    Fig.    L69 

ON    AN    ENLARGED    SCALE. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


275 


Vignola  (1507  to  1573).  This  architect,  by  his  works 
and  his  teaching,  exercised  very  great  influence  on  his 
contemporaries  and  successors,  and  the  effect  of  his  ex- 
ample is,  like  Palladio's,  to  be  traced  not  only  in  the 
architectural  bias  of  his  own  times,  but  also  in  the 
course  of  the  eighteenth  century.  This  result  was 
principally  brought  about  by  means  of  his  book  on  tho 
five  columnar  orders  of  antiquity,  and  this  treatise  has 
been  regarded  as  an  authority  down  to  the  latest  times. 
His  most  noteworthy  construction  is  the  Castle  of 
Caparola,  between  Rome  and  Viterbo  (Fig.  171). 


Fig.    171.      CASTLE    OF   CAPRAROLA.    BETWEEN    HOME   AND 
VITERBO,    BY    VIGNOLA. 


171.  The  third  school  was  developed  contemporan- 
eously with  the  above  by  Michel-Angelo  Buonarotti 
(1474  to  1564).  This  great  genius  had  extraordinary 
and  excessive  views,  and  could  not  consequently  accom- 
modate himself  without  reservation,  as  his  contempo- 
raries did.  to  the  principles  and  rules  which  had  already 


276 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


O 
H 

B 

ES 

>  P 

S  J 

a  h 

O  w 

«  o 
< 


t  Q 


EAST  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


277 


found  universal  acceptation.     His  manner,  therefore,  of 
treating   architectural    forms   savored    of   arbitrariness 


Fig.    173.      BACK    VIEW    OF    ST.    PETER'S,    ROME. 


rather  than  of  conformity  with  constructive  and  aes- 
thetic principles,  and  aimed  more  at  picturesqueness  of 
effect  than  at  strictness  of  stvle. 


278  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

Michel-Angelo  assumed  such  a  considerable  and 
prominent  position  by  his  genius  and  authority,  that  his 
example  necessarily  entailed  imitation  and  produced  ef- 
fects on  subsequent  times.  When  his  deviations  were 
moderate,  they  were  considered  by  his  imitators  merely 
as  marks  of  the  originality  of  his  wonderful  talent,  and 
by  this  means  proved  stepping-stones  to  the  degenera- 
tion which  marked  the  ensuing  period  of  the  Rococo 
style.  Amongst  his  architectural  works,  the  design  of 
the  Capitol  at  Rome,  with  its  wings  (Fig.  172),  may 
be  considered  as  the  most  pleasing,  whilst  as  a  testi- 
mony to  his  lofty  genius  the  mighty  and  glorious  dome 
of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  (Figs.  173  and  174),  and  which 
has  no  rival  in  the  world,  must  be  adduced  as  a  striking 
instance.  This  dome  was  only  completed  after  Michel- 
Angelo 's  death.  Both  as  regards  its  colossal  dimen- 
sions, as  well  as  its  beautiful  proportions  and  lines,  it 
produces,  bcth  internally  and  externally,  a  most  wonder- 
ful impression.  It  should  be  remarked  that  Michel- 
Angelo,  like  Bramante  before  him,  selected  the  form  of 
the  Greek  cross  for  his  church,  and  planned  the  dome 
accordingly,  and  that  the  nave,  which  is  by  Carlo 
.Maderno,  is,  both  externally  and  internally,  prejudicial 
to  the  effect  of  the  dome  (see  Fig.  175). 

172.  Though  the  individual  productions  of  the  above- 
mentioned  architects  naturally  differed  from  each  other, 
yet  the  palaces  of  the  Roman  Renaissance  have  this  in 
common,  that  they  all  convey  the  impression  of  marked 
dignity  and  of  size  in  conjunction  with  simplicity.  The 
most  important  of  the  causes  that  conduce  to  this  re- 
sult are  the  proportions  and  large  dimensions.  The 
mouldings  and  other  architectural  details  are  clearly  de- 
fined, but  not  so  prominent  as  in  the  Florentine  palaces, 


EASY  LESSONS  IN   ARCHITECTURE 


279 


Fig.    174.      SECTION    OF    THE    DOME    OF    ST.    PETERS,    ROME. 

and  for  the  most  part  traced  upon  purely  classical 
R.nian  principles.  This  remark  is  applicable  to  the 
earlier  period  of  the  Renaissance,  for  in  the  later  period 
the  bent,  broken,   and  twisted  forms  which  occur,   es- 


280 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


pecially  in  the  jambs  of  windows  and  their  pediments, 
differ  entirely  from  those  of  antiquity.  But  the  palaces 
which  belong  to   the   good    period    of   the   Renaissance 


Fig.    175.       GROUND-PLAN    OF    ST.    PETER'S,    ROME. 


are,  in  fact,  isolated  examples,  as  the  above-mentioned 
buildings  by  Bramante,  Balthazar  Peruzzi,  and  some 
others.  The  Farnese  Palace,  by  Antonio  Sangallo,  which 
is  the  most  imposing  in  Rome,  must  be  considered  as 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE  281 

a  solitary  exception  to  this  rule.  This  palace  would 
represent  the  Roman  palatial  style  in  the  most  com- 
plete manner  were  it  not  for  the  tact  that  the  third 
story,  which  was  designed  by  Michel-Angelo,  detracts 
so  greatly  from  the  facade  by  its  windows,  which  are 
in  the  Rococo  style,  and  do  not  at  all  suit  the  others 
that  the  harmonious  unity  of  the  whole  is  seriously  im- 
paired. The  desire  of  novelty,  and  the  abandonment 
of  traditional  laws,  have,  in  this  instance,  clearly  given 
rise  to  a  fault.  Not  only  is  it  open  to  censure  that  the 
semi-circular  heads  to  some  of  the  windows  lack  uni- 
formity with  the  rest  of  the  building',  in  which  hori- 
zontal lines  are  predominant,  but  even  the  treatment  of 
their  architraves,  etc.,  is  very  ill-judged,  mainly  owing 
to  the  fact  that  through  a  deficiency  in  height  the  arches 
of  the  windows  have  been  carried  up  to  the  hori- 
zontal line  of  the  pediments,  and  that  consequently  the 
horizontal  architrave  and  frieze  of  the  window  entab- 
lature had  to  be  abandoned  (see  Fig.  170).  The  worst 
of  the  characteristic  mistakes  of  the  decadence  of  an- 
cient Roman  architecture  are,  moreover,  here  introduced 
anew,  namely,  the  introduction  of  columns  which, do 
not  rest  on  the  ground,  but  which  are  supported  by 
brackets,  and  which  support  architraves  with  a  profile 
which  coincides  with  that  displayed  by  the  debased  pro- 
file of  the  decadence  architecture. 

Fig.  176  presents  a  type  of  the  majority  of  the  palaces 
of  the  Roman  Renaissance  style,  at  least  so  far  as  regards 
the  architectural  features  and  their  arrangement ;  for  the 
most  important  palaces  in  this  style  are  both  more  im- 
posing by  their  great  length,  whilst  at  the  same  time 
they  are  less  simple  and  less  correct  in  their  details. 

The  Roman  palaces  are  for  the  most  part  without  any 


282 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


important  sculptural  accessories,  and  without  ornamen- 
tation, unless  ;iii  exception  be  made  as  regards  the 
decorated  mouldings  of  the  cornice,  which  is  generally 

Corinthian:  .such  enrichments  are  usually  ovoli,  den- 
tils, and  consoles.  It  is  the  very  simplicity  of  the 
Unman  palaces,  in  conjunction  with  their  vast  dimen- 
sions,  which   gives  the    impression   of   dignity.     If   this 


Fig.    17G.      VEROSPI    PALACE    AT    ROME. 


style  is  applied  to  our  modern  dwellings  with  their 
curtailed  dimensions,  more  ornamentation  is  requisite 
than  was  the  case  with  the  vast  Roman  palaces,  for 
otherwise  the  impression  would  he  feeble  and  uninterest- 
ing as  soon  as  the  effect  produced  by  the  extent  of  the 
structure  was  wanting. 

173.  The  vestibules  are  generally  spacious,  but  still 
they  do  not  produce  the  impression  which  is  conveyed 
by  a  richer  style  of  architecture.     A  more  pleasing  ef- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARC.HITECTUKE 


28;i 


feet  might  have  been  attained  by  the  employment  of 
columns  where  now  heavy  pilasters  support  the  vaults  of 
the  vestibule.  The  arrangement,  however,  of  the  vesti- 
bules and  courts  is  carried  out  with  some  view  to  pic- 
turesque effect:  sometimes  there  are  colonnades,  while 
at  others  they  are  wanting;  niches  with  statues  are 
introduced  opposite  the  entrance;  whilst  a  fountain  at 
the  background  of  the  first  court,  or  still  more  effec- 
tively at  that  of  the  second,  is  seldom  wanting.  The 
perspective  effect  is  naturally  increased  by  these  courts. 
It  is  rarely  that  the  staircase  is  included  in  the  first 


n 


fl^u*  | 


n 


mi     r 

L-.A---_X» 


Fig.   177.      PLAN   OF   THE  TURSI-DORIA   PALACE  AT   GENOA. 


coup  (Vcril,  it  is  usually  placed  at  the  side,  and  behind 
a  gallery.  The  remaining  space  of  the  ground-floor  is 
generally  taken  up  with  stables  and  coach-houses  and 
other  subordinate  appliances.  The  rooms  which  are 
used  for  ordinary  or  state  purposes  are  on  the  first 
floor,  whilst  the  second  floor  is  appropriated  to  the  same 
purpose,  and  between  or  below  is  the  entre-sol,  or  mez- 
zanine, which  generally  has  windows  of  a  square  shape. 
174.  The  buildings  of  the  sixteenth  century  at  Genoa 
form  a  distinct  species  of  the  Modern  Roman  style, 
mainly  owing  to  the  fact   that   they   were  designed   by 


284 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  178.   HALF  OF  THE  FACADE  OF  A  PALACE  AT  GENOA. 


one  single  artist,  Galeazzo  Alesso  (1500-1572).  They  are 
large  palaces,  which  bear  an  independent  character  and 
differ  from  those  of  other  towns,  especially  in  the  ar- 
rangement  of  the  interior.  The  uneven  and  circum- 
scribed  nature  of  the  ground  on  which  they  are  built 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


285 


is  mainly  conducive  to  this,  and  picturesque  and  im- 
posing effects  arc  skillfully  produced  by  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  vestibules,  halls,  and  steps  (Fig.  177).  In 
this  respect  the  palaces  of  Genoa  are  unrivalled,  for  the 
Florentine  palaces,  as  well  as  the  Venetian,  arc  entirely 
wanting  in  such  vestibules.  At  Rome,  on  the  other 
hand,  where  the  palaces  were  not  restricted  by  want 
of  ground,  and  where  the  vestibules  and  courts  assume 
even  larger  dimensions  than  at  Genoa,  no  such  pic- 
turesque effects  of  light  and  perspective  are  produced 
as,  in  the  latter  city,  rise  from  the  architecture  itself, 
and  from  effects  of  perspective  and  light  and  shade. 


r?ZT:: 


tylT'- 


Fig.    179.      FACADE    OF    THE    TURSI-DORIA   PALACE   AT    GENOA. 


The  purity  of  style,  however,  of  the  Genoese  palaces 
is  not  so  great  as  in  the  Roman,  particularly  as  re- 
gards the  heavy,  ungraceful  forms  of  details.  This  is 
shown  by  Figs.  178  and  179,  and  there  are  other  in- 
stances in  which  the  faults  are  more  marked  than  in  the 
palaces  in  question.  The  palaces  of  Genoa  may,  how- 
ever, be  favorably  contrasted  with  the  Roman  as  re- 
gards height;  for  the  ground-floor  and  the  mezzanine 
are  raised  considerably,  in  order  to  gain  more  light  and 


286 


KASV   LESSONS  IN   ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.    180.      PAIXTED    VAULT   OF   THE    FLORENTINE    PALACE    IN 

ROME. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


237 


288 


EASY  LESSONS  EM  ARCHITECTURE 


a  better  view  from  the  main  story.  Owing,  however, 
to  the  extreme  narrowness  of  the  streets  and  the  conse- 
quent difficulty  in  obtaining  a  satisfactory  point  of  view, 
the  object  is  not  obtained  to  the  desired  degree. 

175.  The  decoration  of  the  interiors  of  the  build- 
ings of  the  Renaissance  is  also  copied  from  ancient  Ro- 
man architecture.  The  rooms  are  either  vaulted  or  have 
flat  ceilings,  but  in  both  cases  they  are  adorned  with 
paintings  after  the  manner  of  those  discovered  in  the 
Baths  of  Titus,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.   180,  or  by  panel- 


nnnnnn 

Fig.    182.      CAPITAL    OF   A   PILASTER    PROM    VENICE. 

work,  thai  is,  sunken  coffers  with  a  regularly  distributed 
enrichment  (Fig.  181).  These  panels  are  themselves 
often  adorned  with  historical  or  allegorical  paintings, 
or  with  arabesques.  Ornamented  panels  were  employed 
in  large  palaces  for  horizontal  ceilings,  as  also  in 
churches,  though  in  the  latter  ease  they  were  more  often 
applied  to  cupola  vaultings,  as  notably  in  St.  Peter's 
(Fig.  181). 

Amongst   other   details,   a  type   of   composite   capital 
is  worthy  of  notice,  because  it  is  of  very  frequent  oc- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


289 


currence,  with  but  very  slight  modifications  (Figs.  181, 
182,  183).  During  the  later  period  of  the  Renaissance 
style  a  very  extensive  application  of  a  kind  of  carved 
scutcheon  was  prevalent;  the  ends  were  generally  rolled 
up  in  imitation  of  parchment  (Figs.  185  and  186). 

176.  When  the  monuments  of  Roman  antiquity  be- 
came a  subject  of  study  at  the  commencement  of  the 
era  of  the  Renaissance,  the  belief  was  entertained  that 
the  architecture  of  bygone  days  was  to  be  invested  with 


Fig.   183.      CAPITAL  OF  A   PILLAR  FROM   FLORENCE. 


a  new  lease  of  life.  But  the  organism  of  the  Classic 
style  did  not  provide  for  every  modern  requirement, 
and  for  buildings  of  several  stories,  the  only  types 
which  were  available  were  the  Roman  theaters  and 
amphitheaters,  and  the  then  existing  Septizonium  of 
Severus:  the  temples  had  to  serve  as  models  for  halls, 
whilst  the  triumphal  arches  were  taken  as  copies  for 
Other  public  buildings,  and  for  the  interior  vaults  the 
baths  were  employed  as  a  pattern.  Consequently, 
the     earlv     Renaissance     style     bears     an     essentially 


290 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


decorative  character,  inasmuch  as  it  employed  the  in- 
dividual forms  of  ancient  architecture  after  adapting 
them  to  the  creations  of  modern  times,  not  as  eonstruc- 


Fig.    185. 


Fig.  186. 

ORNAMENTATION    PECULIAR   TO 
THE    LATE    RENAISSANCE 
Fig.    184.      PORTION    OF  A  STYLE. 

DECORATED  PILASTER  WITH 
CAPITAL,     IN  THE  CHURCH  OF 
SANTA  MARIA  DEI  MIRACULI  AT      ' 
VENICE. 

live  but  rather  as  decorative  elements,  which,  however, 
the  Renaissance  endeavored  to  reproduce  in  a  manner 
that  was  at  the  same  time  regular  and  noble.  When 
the  awakened  perception  of  the  beauties  of  Grecian  and 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE         291 

Roman  buildings  led  to  the  resumption  of  the  horizontal 
architrave  instead  of  the  pointed  arch,  the  grotesque 
treatment  of  the  pointed,  angular,  and  swelling  foliage 
which  was  employed  in  the  capitals  and  friezes  of  the 
Gothic  style,  had  to  give  place  to  the  acanthus  leaf  and 
other  more  graceful  forms  of  ornament.  When  the 
gloomy  spirit  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  forced  to  vanish 
before  the  new  zeal  for  classical  studies  and  the  de- 
light which  they  occasioned,  the  whole  appearance  of 
buildings,  in  their  totality  as  well  as  in  their  details, 
seemed  to  be  brightened  up,  and  to  be  imbued  with  that 
spirit  of  regeneration  which  permeated  at  the  same  time 
through  social  life. 

177.  The  above-mentioned  development  of  the  dec- 
orative element  of  the  Renaissance  style  took  place  es- 
pecially in  interiors,  and  sculpture  and  painting,  the 
sister  arts  of  architecture,  working  harmoniously  to- 
gether, produced  most  excellent  results.  The  walls  and 
ceilings  were  covered  with  paintings,  whilst  a  method 
of  colored  decoration,  which  came  into  vogue  in  con- 
sequence of  the  excavation  of  the  Baths  of  Titus,  was 
very  generally  employed.  This  consists  of  objects  taken 
from  the  vegetable  kingdom  blended  in  a  fantastic  man- 
ner with  figures  of  men  and  animals,  of  masks,  of  ves- 
sels, of  shields,  and  even  of  entire  pictures;  and  com- 
bined with  the  architectural  details  of  the  building,  and 
in  conjunction  with  statuary.  The  whole  forms  one  of 
the  most  praiseworthy  features  of  the  Renaissance,  and 
the  celebrated  Loggie  of  Raphael  are  instances  of  this 
mode  of  treatment  (Fig.  187).  The  decorative  paint- 
ings of  Raphael's  pupil,  Giulio  Romano,  and  of  many 
others,  are  likewise  remarkable.  The  Gothic  method 
of  ornamentation  with  its  mere  combinations  of  lines 


292 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.    187.      WALL-PIECE   PROM    THE   LOGGIE  OP  RAPHAEL  AT 
ROME. 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE         293 

and   perpetually  recurring  borderings  and   panel-work 

seems  tame  and  insipid  beside  the  bright  and  graceful 
decoration  of  the  Kenaissance,  in  which  such  ample 
scope  was  allowed  to  the  play  of  the  fancy. 

178.  Besides  the  walls  and  ceilings  of  the  interior, 
the  facades  were  frequently  decorated  with  sculptured 
figures,  and  the  flat  spaces  between  the  windows  and 
mouldings  underwent  ornamentation.  This  took  place 
either  by  a  manner  of  painting  called  sgraffito,  in  which 
the  undercoating  was  black,  with  a  thin  surface-coating 
of  white  laid  over  it,  and  then  the  design  or  shading 
was  engraved  or  scraped  away  down  to  the  black 
grounding;  or  similar  designs  were  executed  in  bas-re- 
lief, as  is  shown  by  Fig.  188,  whilst  Fig.  183  repre- 
sents part  of  a  facade  painted  in  sgraffito. 

179.  During  the  flourishing  period  of  the  Renais- 
sance, architecture  showed  less  hankering  after  mere 
richness  of  detail,  and  strove  rather  after  noble  sim- 
plicity :  and  this  tendency  was  exhibited  even  in  in- 
teriors, although  in  a  modified  degree.  This  flourish- 
ing period  lasted  scarcely  fifty  years,  and  occurred  at 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  during  its 
prevalence  decoration  was  kept  within  due  bounds,  and 
in  harmony  with  the  principal  forms.  At  the  same 
time  it  cannot  be  denied  that  a  certain  architectural 
beauty,  or  at  least  a  pleasant  effect,  was  often  produced 
in  the  later  period  of  the  Renaissance  when  the  decora- 
tion was  no  longer  so  well  regulated  and  when  the  de- 
tails were  not  in  such  strict  accordance  with  the  main 
object  of  the  design. 

180.  Whilst  the  Florentine  and  the  Venetian  Renais- 
sance styles  remained,  with  trifling  exceptions,  confined 
to    their    respective    districts,    the    Roman    Renaissance 


294 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


lJ^J^^^J^-'^:*-^^T^atL^^y^^T^^vp^1v/^-^-<>-Jf> 


Fig.  189.   PART  OF  A 
FACADE  IN  BGNAFFITO  AT 
Fig.  188.   PART  OF  THE  FACADE  OF  ROME. 

THE  SPADA  PALACE  AT   ROME. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  295 

style,  as  well  as  the  Rococo  style  which  succeeded  it,  ex- 
tended over  all  Western  Europe.  The  adoption  of  this 
style,  however,  took  place  later  than  in  Italy  itself,  where 
the  Pointed  style  had  never  gained  such  a  firm  hold  as 
in  other  countries.  The  first  influence  upon  the  Later 
developments  of  this  style  of  the  Italian  or  Renaissance 
manner  is  perceptible  in  a  return  to  horizontal  lines 
with  the  flat  and  the  semi-circular  arch,  particularly 
in  secular  buildings. 

This  altered  treatment  of  the  Pointed  style  during 
the  last  period  of  its  employment  forms  the  only  transi- 
tion which  took  place  to  the  Italian  Renaissance  style. 
In  Germany,  this  latter  is  called  simply  "the  Italian 
style."  There  is,  properly  speaking,  no  transition  style, 
as  in  Italy;  but  the  Renaissance  style  was  at  once  ac- 
cepted as  a  complete  and  developed  one,  and  adopted 
with  the  principles  which  prevailed  in  the  land  of  its 
birth.  It  is  only  in  France,  where  it  was  introduced 
somewhat  earler  than  elsewhere,  that  many  buildings 
exhibit  a  free  treatment  with  reminiscences  of  the  Ro- 
manesque style. 

The  alterations  and  modifications  which  the  Renais- 
sance style  underwent  in  Italy  were  carefully  copied  in 
the  countries  in  which  it  prevailed.  It  was,  moreover, 
precisely  at  the  epoch  of  its  greatest  deterioration  that 
this  style  was  most  extensively  employed  in  non-Italian 
countries. 

Xo  characteristic  national  features  and  no  local  points 
of  difference  are  therefore  to  be  sought  for  in  the  build- 
ings of  the  various  countries,  except  in  those  subtle 
shades  of  variety  which  owe  their  origin  to  the  higher  or 
lower  esthetic  development  and  artistic  status  of  these 
countries. 


29  G 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


EASYr  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  297 

181.  The  artistic  influence  of  Italy  came  into  opera- 
tion in  France  sooner  than  in  other  European  countries, 
for  as  early  as  the  fifteenth  century  the  Renaissance 
style  was  introduced  there  by  Italian  architects,  as,  for 
instance,  by  Pra  Giocondo,  who  was  summoned  thither 
by  Louis  XII.  But  at  that  epoch  the  Flamboyant  style 
was  still  in  its  vigor,  and  the  buildings  then  erected  could 
not  extricate  themselves  from  its  influence.  The  con- 
sequence was  that  a  blending  of  the  two  styles  tempo- 
rarily prevailed,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  Chateau  de  Gail- 
Ion,  which  was  built  between  the  years  1502  and  1510, 
part  of  the  facade  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  court  of 
the  Ecole  des  Beaux-arts  at  Paris,  as  well  as  in  the 
Chateau  de  Blois,  which  Louis  XII.  caused  to  be  built, 
and  which  has  lately  been  restored  by  Duban.  It  was 
in  these  country  residences  of  the  nobility,  especially  on 
the  banks  of  the  Loire,  that  this  architectural  activity 
was  displayed  during  the  earlier  period  of  the  Renais- 
sance; amongst  their  number  the  Chateau  de  Chambord 
(Fig.  190)  is  most  worthy  of  notice.  The  pilasters  and 
the  mouldings  of  the  Renaissance  style  were,  it  is  true, 
somewhat  rudely  carried  out,  and  in  the  earlier  period 
were  combined  with  certain  elements  of  the  Flamboyant 
style.  Highly  ornamental  gables  and  dormer-windows, 
especially,  were  executed  in  the  latter  style.  Buildings 
were  contemporaneously  constructed  entirely  in  the 
Flamboyant  style,  as,  for  instance,  the  Cathedral,  the 
Palais  de  Justice,  and  the  Hotel  Bourgthcroulde,  all  at 
Rouen,  and  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Compiegne. 

The  Italian  Renaissance  had,  as  has  been  shown,  to 
struggle  with  the  Flamboyant  style  during  the  reign  of 
Louis  XII.  It  made,  however,  decisive  progress  under 
Francis  I.,  who  summoned  Serlio  and  other  Italian  ar- 


298 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


ehitects  from  their  native  country  (1515-1547),  and 
under  his  successor,  Henry  II.  From  that  time  forward 
the  ancient  columnar  orders  were  universally  substituted 
for  the  architectural  features  which  had  hitherto  pre- 
vailed, as,  for  instance,  in  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Paris, 
which  was  built  by  Domenieo  Cortana  in  1533.  It  must, 
however,  be  remarked  that  the  Italian  architects  who 
were  resident  in  France  modified  their  ideas,  consciously 
or   unconsciously,   to   suit   the   French   taste.     A   style 


Fig.  191.   SECTION  OF  THE  INNER  FACADE  OF  THE  LOUVRE. 


was  thereby  produced  which  may  be  called  French  or 
Kalian,  according  as  the  proclivities  and  influence  of  the 
one  or  the  other  nation  predominated.  After  the  period 
of  I'hilibert  Delonne,  who  completed  the  chapel  of  the 
Chateau  d'Anet  in  the  Renaissance  style  in  the  year 
1552,  the  Gothic  style  was,  as  a  rule,  abandoned,  in 
spite  of  the  opposition  of  many  French  architects,  who 
struggled  against  the  foreign  style  of  architecture  at 
Beauvis  as  late  as  1555.     At  the  same  time  the  general 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  299 

arrangement  of  the  Gothic  churches  was  retained,  and 

it  was  only  the  Renaissance  system  of  decoration  which 
was  substituted  for  the  Gothic:  the  ground-plan,  the 
proportions,  and  the  whole  structure  with  its  flying 
buttresses,  pinnacles,  clustered  columns,  deeply  recessed 
portals,  etc.,  is  borrowed  from  the  pointed  style,  and  it 
was  only  in  the  details  and  in  the  ornamentation  that 
the  Renaissance  was  followed.  The  Church  of  St.  Eu- 
Btache  at  Paris  and  the  Church  at  Gisors  are  instances 
of  this  architectural  phase. 

The  three  prominent  architects,  Pierre  Lescot  (1510- 
1578),  who  designed  the  celebrated  Western  Facade  of 
the  Louvre  (Fig.  191  and  a  portion  of  the  same  on  a 
larger  scale),  Philibert  Delorme  and  Jean  Buillant,  who 
was  the  architect  of  the  earlier  portions  of  the  Tuileries 
(Fig.  193),  and  of  the  Chateau  d'Ecouen,  exerted  such 
an  influence  over  the  architecture  of  their  native  coun- 
try that  the  Italian  Renaissance  Style  became  thence- 
forward the  predominant  one  in  France.  The  above- 
mentioned  chateau  gradually  assumed  a  typical  char- 
acter. The  facade  of  the  Louvre  is,  however,  essentially 
French  in  contradiction  to  Italian,  and  this  is  especially 
noticeable  in  the  ornamentation.  Jean  Goujon  and  Paul 
Ponce  executed  for  this  facade  the  best  sculptures  which 
marked  the  Renaissance  in  France.  Under  these  joint 
influences  an  elevation  was  produced  in  which  rich- 
ness is  perceptible  without  excess,  and  symmetry  is  at- 
tained without  stiffness;  in  fact,  a  design  in  which 
aesthetic  laws  are  fully  considered,  and  the  details  har- 
moniously, if  not  magnificently,  executed.  Although  the 
French  architects  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Francis 
I.  inclined  towards  the  Italian  style  of  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries,  and  especially  to  that  of  Bramante, 


300 


EASY   LESSONS  IN   ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.    192.      PART   OF   THE    INNER    FACADE  OF   THE    LOUVRE   AT 

PARIS. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN   ARCHITECTURE 


301 


yet  they  succeeded  in  imparting  a  peculiar  grace  to  that 

style,  as  it  was  developed  in  France,  which  neverthe- 
less vanished  towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
At  the  same  time,  however,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
French  Renaissance  Style  cannot  for  a  momenl  be  com- 
pared with  the  Italian  during  its  palmy  period,  either  as 
regards  purity  or  novelty  of  design. 


^W*5^g^p? 


Fig.  193.   PART  OF  THE  OLDEST  FACADE  OF  THE  TUILERIES. 


182.     Little  by  little  a  method  of  ornamentation  was 
introduced    by    successive    decorators    and    architects, 

which  was  eminently  suited  to  the  French  taste.  An- 
drouet  Du  Cerceau  and  -lean  Lepautre  are  especially 
noticeable  as  representatives  of  this  school  of  embell- 
ishment. The  sumptuous  Apollo  Gallery  in  the  Louvre 
is  a  characteristic  example  of  the   productions  of  the 


302 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


^v-^r^?>M(K.$*mn 


Fig. 


194.   FRAGMENTS  FROM  THE  APOLLO  GALLERY  IN  THE 
LOUVRE  AT  PARIS. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


303 


latter.     Fig.   582  exhibits  a   portion   of   the  system  of 
decoration  which  pervades  the  whole  gallery. 

Du  Cereeau,  who  flourished  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  IV.,  connected  the  block  of  buildings  which  be- 
longed to  the  Louvre,  and  had  been  constructed  under 
Catherine  dei  Medici,  by  a  gallery  with  the  Tuileries 
(Fig.  195).  This  architect  abandoned  the  characteris- 
tic feature  of  the  French  Renaissance,  which  had  pre- 


iiii''' 


.'■■■■■■i''1'  Atl,l,l,,..i.|M-.ii!i|„'.  .i  vu.lr.i 


Fig.  195.   THE  FLORE  PAVILION  AND  PART  OF  THE  GALLERY 
OF  THE  LOUVRE,  BEFORE  THE  MODERN  RECONSTRUCTION 
OF  THE  FACADE. 


vailed  hitherto,  namely,  of  giving  its  peculiar  columnar 
order  to  each  story,  and  assimilated  his  designs  to  those 
of  the  late  Roman  Renaissance,  in  which  a  striking  effect 
was  produced  at  the  expense  of  truth  by  continuous 
columns  and  pilasters  extending  over  several  stories  and 
rows  of  windows. 


304 


EASY   LESSONS  IN    ARCHITECTURE 


Although  Du  Cerceau  was  obliged  to  leave  France  in 
the  year  160-4,  the  impulse  which  he  had  given  in  the 
direction  of  the  afore  mentioned  manner  led  to  its  being 
generally  adopted.     The  new  buildings  were  more  cor- 


Fig.  196.  PART  OF  A  FACADE  IN  THE  PLACE  ROYALE  AT  PARIS. 


rect,  lull  Less  picturesque  than  those  built  during  the 
earlier  period  of  the  French  Renaissance,  and  a  cer- 
tain insipidity  seems  to  characterize  the  various  struc- 
tures erected  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  IV.,  and  es- 
pecially Louis  XIII.     As  is  shown  by  Fig.  196,  a  com- 


EASY  LKSSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  305 

binalion  oL'  free-stone  and  brick  was  resorted  to  in  such 
a  way  that  the  former  was  employed  for  the  mould- 
ings, and  for  the  quoins  and  dressings  of  the  doors  and 
windows,  whilst  brick  was  used  for  the  spaces  between. 

In  the  case  of  the  windows  the  free-stone  introduced  as- 
sumed the  form  of  quoins.  If  ornamentation  had  been 
previously  excessive,  it  now  retired  into  the  background, 
and  was  only  employed  in  moderation;  and  the  method 
of  its  treatment  began  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of 
the  former  period.  The  forms  of  the  details  above  all 
began  to  lose  in  purity:  rustications  were  inappro- 
priately introduced  in  the  walls  and  columns,  and  the 
roofs  wrere  made  high  and  steep,  which  gave  the  rest 
of  the  building  a  heavy  and  squat  appearance,  whilst 
the  numerous  turret-shaped  chimneys,  which  were  ne- 
cessitated by  these  high  roofs,  formed  a  peculiar  feature 
in  the  construction.  The  Rococo,  or  Baroque  Style, 
which  forms  a  subject  of  itself,  was  beginning  at 
the  same  time  to  exert  its  influence.  Commencing 
from  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  this 
new  architectural  deviation  became  prevalent  in  all 
civilized  countries,  owing  to  the  splendor  and  influence 
of  the  French  power  and  manners,  and  the  influence 
of  Italian  art  was  consequently  paralyzed.  Fig.  197 
eives  a  characteristic  example  of  the  French  archi- 
tecture of  this  period  of  the  Later  Renaissance,  showing 
the  peculiarities  which  have  been  described  above. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  better  tendencies  of  the 
Renaissance  period  disappear  in  the  second  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  the  new  edifices  display  proofs 
of  a  deterioration  of  taste,  the  degeneration  which  hail 
set  in  continued  to  increase  with  time,  as  may  be 
gathered   from  the   various  buildings  of  the   reign    of 


306 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Louis  XIV.  The  natural  laws  of  architecture  were 
more  and  more  neglected,  and  replaced  by  certain  con- 
ventional rules  for  the  application  of  the  Roman  colum- 
nar orders.  Amidst  all  this  desire  for  show,  this  mag- 
nificence and  a  great  confusion  of  means,  especially  of 
the  popular  column  and  pilaster  arrangement  in  large 


Fig.   197.      THE  CHATEAU  DE  BEAU   MESNIL. 


dimensions,  as,  for  instance,  the  over-praised  Colonnade 
of  the  Louvre,  there  is  still  a  certain  insipidity  peculiar 
to  the  constructions  of  the  period.  In  accordance  with 
the  disposition  of  Louis  XIV.,  architecture  was  for  the 
future  only  to  give  expression  to  that  proud  pom])  which 
characterized  all  the  undertakings  and  the  whole  reign 
of  the  Grand  Monarque. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


307 


The  principal  architectural  activity  of  this  period  was 
displayed  by  Jules  Ilardouin  .Mansard,  who  was  head 
architect  to  the  king  and   the  head   of  an  influential 


Fig.    198.      THE    IXVALIDES   AT   PARIS. 

school,  as  Lenotre  at  the  same  time  was  principal  horti- 
culturist, Mansard  built  the  palaces  of  Versailles  (1647- 
1708),  Marly,  the  Grand  Trianon,  as  also  the  Invalides 
at  Paris   (Fig.  198). 


308 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


The  internal  system  of  decoration  which  had  been 
brought  in  by  Lepautre  was  modified  by  Mansard  and 
Berain.     Mirrors  were  freely  introduced  in  the  embell- 


Fig.    199.      PORTION   OF   Fig.    200    ON   A   LARGE   SCALE. 


ishment  of  rooms,  especially  in  connection  with  the 
fireplaces,  and  may  be  said  to  have  now  become  a  dis- 
tinctive  feature  in  the  decoration  of  interiors. 

It  was  in  the  seventeenth  century,  contemporaneously 
with  the  decadent f  Italy,  that  the  domineering  in- 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE         309 

tiuence  of  France  on  other  countries  began  to  be  recog 
nized.  This  result  was  mainly  attained  by  the  power 
and  glory  of  Louis  XIV.,  as  well  a.s  by  the  brilliancy 
of  his  court.  In  many  places  French  gardens  and  cas- 
tles were  imitated,,  and  French  architects  were  employed 
in  their  construction. 

On  Mansard's  death  a  considerable  alteration  took 
place  in  French  architecture.  An  entirely  new*  system 
of  decoration  arose  for  interiors,  which  is  often  known 
under  the  designation  Rococo.  This  is  somewhat  dif- 
ferent from  the  Italian  Rococo  style  which  will  be  de- 
scribed in  §§  190  and  191,  and  properly  belongs  to  that 
division  of  the  work  in  which  the  Rococo  style  is  dis- 
cussed, but  it  is  inserted  in  this  place  in  order  to  secure 
continuity,  and  to  trace  the  whole  course  of  the  French 
Renaissance  without  interruption. 

183.  It  was  principally  the  above-mentioned  system 
of  Rococo  decoration  and  architectural  detail  which 
characterized  the  architecture  of  the  time  of  Louis  XV. ; 
it  is,  consequently,  sometimes  designated  as  the  style 
of  Louis  XV.  Fig.  199  gives  a  portion  of  an  interior 
drawn  in  perspective,  whilst  Fig.  200  depicts  the  entire 
wall  from  which  this  portion  is  taken. 

Interna]  arrangements  and  decorations  are  the  main 
characteristics  of  the  style  of  this  period,  and  in  this 
direction  the  best  results  were  doubtless  produced. 
Large  and  lofty  rooms,  as  well  as  scope  for  display,  were 
indispensable;  consequently  this  style  of  embellishment 
was  most  happily  carried  out  iu  state  apartments,  es- 
pecially in  the  princely  castles  and  palaces,  or,  as  tin1 
French  call  them,  the  "Hotels"  of  the  aristocracy. 

De  Cotte  must  also  be  mentioned  as  well  as  Berain,  a.s 
his  plans  and  buildings  exercised  considerable  influence, 


310 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


and  caused  the  princes  of  foreign  countries  to  be  de- 
sirous to  avail  themselves  of  Ins  services.  Indeed  French 
artists  were  in  great  request  at  this  period  in  Europe, 
■for  Paris  had  become  the  model  which  was  thought 
worthy  of  imitation  in  other  lands. 


Fig.    200.      DECORATIONS    OF   A   SMALL   SALOON    IN   THE    PAT. ACE 
OF  VERSAILLES,    OF  WHICH   Fig.   199   GIVES  A   POPTION   ON 
A   LARGER   SCALE. 


184.  Towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  a 
reaction  set  in,  which  was  caused  partly  by  the  excess 
and  caprice  displayed  in  the  application  of  this  style, 
and  partly  by  the  tide  again  setting  in  the  direction 
of  the  antique.    This  is  evinced  by  the  Colonnades  de  la 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  AKCIIITECTURE 


311 


Place  de  Concorde,  and  by  the  Church  of  Sic.  Genevieve, 

which  was  begun  by  Soufflot  in  the  year  1755,  and  sub- 
sequently received  the  name  of  the  Pantheon  (Fig. 
201).  From  thenceforth  imitations  of  ancient  buildings 
came  into  vogue,  as  they  also  did  in  other  countries.    As 


Fig.   201.      WEST   FRONT   OF   THE    PANTHEON   AT    PARIS. 


a  counterpoise  to  the  former  license,  a  certain  strict- 
ness and  moderation  in  ornamentation  was  now  resorted 
to.  which  at  last  almost  approached  deficiency.  Percier 
set  himself  the  task  of  correcting  this  false  step,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  again  placing  the  art  on  a  proper  footing.    I  lis 


312  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

intelligence,  his  capability  and  his  knowledge  were  very 
considerable,  and  in  the  year  1792  he  opened  a  school, 
which  must  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  influential 
that  ever  existed;  for  the  most  efficient  and  renowned 
architects  of  the  whole  of  Europe  who  attained  reputa- 
tion during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
had  there  acquired  their  knowledge  of  their  art.  The 
founder  of  the  school  himself  was  considered  as  an 
indisputable  authority  both  under  the  first  Empire  and 
in  the  days  of  the  restored  Bourbons;  and,  in  con- 
junction with  Fontaine,  he  erected  structures  in  the 
Roman  style,  amongst  which  may  be  mentioned  the 
Madeline,  and  the  Bourse,  and  the  triumphal  arch  in 
the  Carousel.  His  numerous  freely-treated  decorative 
achievements  in  the  Roman  Renaissance  style,  in  castles 
and  palaces,  have  for  half  a  century  been  regarded  as 
models,  and  frequently  imitated. 

185.  The  Renaissance  style  was  not  employed  in 
Germany  before  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  the  most  noteworthy  instances  of  it  are  the  Belve- 
dere of  Ferdinand  I.,  on  the  Hradschin  at  Prague,  and 
the  so-called  Otto  Henry  buildings  at  Heidelberg  Cas- 
tle  (1556-1559).  The  facade  of  the  last-mentioned  struc- 
ture, of  which  Pigs.  202  and  203  represent  portions,  is 
peculiar  for  a  richness  and  variety  of  details  which 
almost  border  on  excess.  At  the  same  time  a  certain 
heaviness  prevails,  which  forms  a  contrast  to  the  grace- 
ful elegance  of  the  best  Italian  buildings  in  the  same 
style:  in  fact  these  faults  may  be  said  to  characterize 
the  productions  of  the  German  Renaissance  style  in 
general.  A  further  instance  of  this  is  afforded  by  Fig. 
204,  which  represents,  a  portion  of  the  facade,  though, 
properly  speaking,  it  belongs  to  the  Rococo  style. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


313 


Figs.   202,   203.      PART  OF  THE  FACADE  OX  THE  OTTO  HEINRTCH 
BUILDINGS   IN   HEIDELBERG   CASTLE- 


314 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


rig.   204.      PORTION  OF  THE  FACADE  OF  THE  BUILDINGS  OF 
HENRY  THE  WISE  IN  HEIDELBERG  CASTLE,  1C01-1G07. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


315 


Fig.  205.   VIEW  OF  THE  CLOTH  HALL  AT  BRUNSWICK. 


The  three  illustrations  which  have  been  taken  for  this 
work  from  Pfnor's  very  meritorious  "Le  Chateau  de 
Heidelberg"  should  tend  to  moderate  the  excessive  ad- 
miration which  is  bestowed  on  this  the  most  esteemed  of 
all  the  buildings  of  the  German  Renaissance.  The  pic- 
turesque beauty  of  the  present  ruins  ought  not  to  screen 


'MS  EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 

the  lack  of  pure  and  graceful  forms  of  detail  when 
.nudging  of  the  architectural  and  artistic  merits  of  the 
building.  Fig.  205  shows  an  interesting  and  pleasing 
example  of  the  German  Kenaissance. 

In  Germany,  as  in  other  countries,  the  elements  of  the 
preceding  style  are  intermingled  with  those  of  the  Ren- 
aissance during  the  early  period  of  its  prevalence, 
particularly  as  regards  details.  It  was  not  till  the  seven- 
teenth century  that  any  architects  of  note  flourished  : 
amongst  these  may  be  mentioned  Elias  Holl  of  Augs- 
burg (died  1636),  in  which  town  he  built  the  Town- 
Hall  and  the  Arsenal,  and  Ilolzsehuher,  who  was  the  ar- 
chitect of  the  Town-Hall  at  Nuremberg. 

The  architectural  activity,  which  had  so  long  been 
hampered  by  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  followed  the 
method  of  treatment  advocated  by  Bernini  and  Bor- 
romini,  which  is  marked  by  great  capriciousness  in  the 
treatment  and  disposition  of  the  architectural  forms. 
Dietterlein  also  contributed  greatly  by  his  publications 
to  the  extension  of  this  school.  In  the  year  1685  Xeh- 
ring  began  the  Arsenal  at  Berlin  which  was  finished 
by  Schlueter,  the  architect  of  the  Palace,  who  died  in 
1714.  The  latter  was  followed  by  Knobelsdorf,  the  ar- 
chitect of  Frederick  the  Great;  he  built  the  palaces  of 
Charlottenburg  and  Sans  Souci  and  the  new  palace  at 
Potsdam,  The  Zwirner  Palace  at  Dresden,  which  was 
built  in  1711  by  Poepelmann,  must  also  be  mentioned  as 
a  noteworthy  example  of  this  style. 

186.  In  Spain  an  Early  Renaissance  Style  appears, 
a  kind  of  transitional  Renaissance  belonging  to  the 
first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  consisted  of  the 
application  of  Moorish  and  pointed  arch  forms  in  con- 
junction with  those  of  classical  antiquity:  in  this  way  a 


EASY  LESSONS  JN  ARCHITECTURE         317 

conformation  was  produced  which  was  peculiar  to 
Spain,  and  the  style  is  characterized  by  bold  lightness, 

by  luxuriance  in  decoration,  and  by  a  spirit  of  romance. 
Naturally  there  was  no  harmony  founded  on  a  duly 
concerted  organic  arrangement:  it  is  rather  the  excess 
of  magnificence  which  dazzles  the  sense  and  causes  a 
favorable  impression  in  the  spectators  of  the  buildings, 
such,  for  example,  as  the  quadrangles  of  the  palaces  and 
monasteries  of  the  period. 

In  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  this  ornate  early  Renais- 
sance style  gave  place  to  a  later  one,  which  in  reality 
belongs  to  the  Rococo  style.  It  came  into  universal  use 
in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  was 
much  aided  by  the  extensive  architectural  undertakings 
of  Philip  II.  Its  principal  expositors  were  the  archi- 
tects Giovanni  Battista  de  Toledo  and  Giovanni  de'Her- 
rera,  who  were  both  pupils  of  Michel- Angelo. 

187.  The  Italian  Renaissance  style  was  introduced 
into  England  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury by  John  of  Padua,  the  architect  of  Henry  VIII., 
towards  the  closing  years  of  the  reign  of  that  monarch. 
In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  to  the  end  of  that  of  James  I., 
Dutch  architects  were  in  vogue  in  England  in  conse- 
quence of  religious  and  political  sympathies.  Their 
peculiarities  of  taste  are  reflected  in  that  English  branch 
of  the  Renaissance  style  usually  known  under  the  name 
of  Elizabethan. 

It  must  be  remarked  that,  as  a  rule,  English  build- 
ings in  the  Renaissance  style  are  distinguished  by  ca- 
pricious treatment  of  forms,  and  generally  exhibit  a 
deficiency  in  that  grace  and  dignity  both  in  details  and 
ensemble  which  lend  a  peculiar  charm  to  Italian  struc- 
tures in  the  same  style.    English  Renaissance  buildings 


318 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


ako  differ  in  the  same  respects  from  the  French;    they 
display  more  similarity  with  those  of  the  Later  German 


Fig.   206.      WOLLATON  HALL. 


Fig.    207.      GROUND-PLAN    OF    Fig.    206,    WOLLATON   HALL. 

Renaissance,  as,  for  example,  the  Castle  of  Heidelberg;; 
where  there  is  much  similarity,  at  least  in  the  treatment 
of  details,  to  the  style  known  as  th'j  Elizabethan. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


319 


It  is  especially  this  vitiated  taste 
in  form  an<l  details  which  character- 
ized the  Elizabethan  Renaissance 
(see  Fig.  206.)  The  usual  Rococo 
Renaissance  forms  also  occur  in  it,  as, 
for  instance,  the  quadrant-shaped 
gables  curving  alternately  inwards 
and  outwards,  as  also  pilasters  and 
columns  intersected  by  quoins  and 
bands;  and  various  grotesque  and 
debased  forms.  Enriched  quoins  are 
also  freely  used  at  angles  and  jambs. 
Fig.  208  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of 
the  details  of  the  Elizabethan  style. 

Inigo  Jones,  who  was  an  imitator 
of  Palladio,  and  who  designed  the 
Palace  of  Whitehall  in  London,  de- 
serves mention  as  the  only  English 
architect  of  this  period  who,  to  a 
certain  extent,  preserved  the  classical 
Renaissance  style  in  its  purity,  and 
free  from  numerous  extraneous  inno- 
vations. Christopher  Wren  (1675- 
1710)  followed  in  his  footsteps;  he 
was  the  architect  of  St.  Paul's,  Lon- 
don, a  building  which,  by  its  dome, 
recalls  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and 
though  marked  neither  by  elegance 
of  form  nor  vigor  of  style,  still  pos- 
sesses considerable  architectural  im- 
portance. 

188.  Fig.  210  and  211  are  intended 
to  convey  an  idea  of  the  details  of 
decoration   which   characterized   the 


3Hfr5ilifl 


Fig.  208.  Corner  of  a  Pi" 

Place  in  the  Elizabeth 

Gallery  at  Windsor 

Castle. 


820 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


Renaissance  style  during  its  best  period,  and  which  dis- 
play considerable  grace  and  finish.  They  are  based  ou 
the  antique  Roman  type,  but  still  display  a  peculiar 
independent  treatment,  as  in  the  deeply  under-cut 
foliage  in  the  arabesques  and  the  lightness  and  clearness 
of  the  stalks  and  tendrils. 


Fig.   209.      ST.   PAUL'S,   LONDON. 


The  ornamentation  of  the  Later  Renaissance  is  less 
vigorous  in  tone,  and  allows  the  admixture  of  animals 
with  vegetable  forms,  and  in  this  way  serves  as  an 
introduction  to  the  Rococo  style.  Festoons  are  of  fre- 
quent occurrence,  as  also  cornucopias  and  garlands,  as 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


321 


Fig.  210.      PORTION  OF  FRIEZE  AT  VENICE. 


Fig.   211.      PORTION    OF  FRIEZE  AT    VENICE. 


322  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

well  as  fabulous  subject  such  as  dragons,  satyrs,  dolph- 
ins, masks,  lions'  heads,  and  so  on. 

In  conclusion,  it  must  be  remarked  that  the  sculptured 
ornament  of  the  Early  Renaissance  was  distinguished  by 
ils  excellent  effect,  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  separ- 
ate  poil ions  of  the  decoration  were  varied  both  in  their 
bulk  and  in  the  degree  of  projection  given  to  them,  but 
more, to  vigorous  undercutting  and  skilful  disposition 
of  light  and  shade,  so  that  when  seen  from  a  distance 
only  a  few  salient  points  stood  out  in  prominent  relief. 
It  is  only  on  a  close  inspection  that  the  more  delicate 
lines  of  the  leaves,  tendrils,  and  figures  which  connect 
together  these  large  masses  display  themselves.  The 
masterly  manner  with  which  Renaissance  ornament  is 
treated  appears  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  all -portions  are 
not  dealt  with  alike,  the  finest  effects  being  obtained 
by  the  subordination  of  individual  portions  and  the 
prominence  given  to  those  which  are  most  important. 
The  ornaments  are  also  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  pleasing 
contrast  with  the  containing  or  adjoining  architectural 
lines;  and  are  fitted  and  subordinated  to  them;  a  mat- 
ter of  the  highest  importance.  In  this  respect  the  later 
Renaissance  cannot  boast  of  equal  success.  On  the 
contrary,  more  salient  ornaments  began  to  be  uniformly 
employed,  and  in  too  great  profusion.  Increased  rich- 
ness of  effect  was,  it  is  true,  thus  arrived  at,  but  the 
productions  lost  in  grace  what  they  gained  in  richness. 
As  a  sort  of  counterpoise  to  this  tendency  the  archi- 
tectural mouldings  and  details  were  executed  in  a  more 
decisive  and  prominent  way,  so  as  to  keep  the  decorative 
details  in  subordination  to  the  main  plan.  On  the 
other  hand  ornamentation  tried  by  dint  of  increased 
extravagance  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  exaggerated 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


323 


architectural  features.     The  result  of  this  was  that  the 

style  became  heavy  and  inartistic. 


Fie    212.      CANOPY  OF  THE  TOMB   OF  CARDINAL 
D'AMBOISE  AT   ROUEN. 


Fig.  212  represents  a  characteristic  specimen  of 
French  Renaissance  decoration,  and  with  thi3  we  will 
conclude  our  chapter  on  Renaissance  Architecture. 


321         EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


THE  ROCOCO  STYLE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE. 

189.  As  has  already  been  shown  in  the  preceding  por- 
tion of  the  work,  the  tendency  was  displayed  soon  after 
the  revival  of  ancient  Roman  architecture  to  consider  the 
columnar  orders  as  the  most  essential  element,  and  to 
construct  everything  in  accordance  with  established 
rules.  As  early,  however,  as  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century  an  opposite  tendency  was  observable,  and  ex- 
cessive freedom  in  the  employment  of  objectless  and 
unusual  forms  became  apparent,  which  by  no  means 
tallied  with  their  original  purpose  and  which  conse- 
quently led  to  the  total  decadence  of  architecture.  It 
is  true  that  antique  forms  were  still  continually  em- 
ployed, but  in  a  manner  which  was  not  in  accordance 
with,  and  even  antagonistic  to,  the  original  intention. 

As  has  been  mentioned  in  the  previous  chapter, 
Michel- Angelo  was  the  first  who,  with  his  genial  but  at 
the  same  time  untractable  proclivities,  displayed  his  un- 
willingness to  conform  in  imitative  art  with  the  laws 
laid  down  by  nature,  and  as  regards  construction,  to 
observe  the  conditions  necessitated  by  static  and  archi- 
tectural canons.  For  the  sake  of  novelty,  he  introduced 
strange  and  discordant  forms  which  were  called  into 
existence  neither  by  actual  necessity  nor  by  the  original 
design,  and  his  intention  appears  to  have  been  to  excite 
astonishment  rather  than  admiration. 

It  was,  moreover,  a  special  misfortune  for  art  that 
his  admirers  and  imitators  endeavored  not  only  to  copy 
but  to  surpass  the  faults  which  could  only  be  pardoned 
in  the  case  of  the  towering  genius  of  the  Italian  archi- 
tect. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  325 

"When  the  principles  of  noble  simplicity  and  purity  of 
form  were  no  longer  followed,  a  predilection  began  to 
be  manifested  for  magnificence  and  luxuriance.  This 
tendency  was  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  age, 
and  attained  its  zenith  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
The  characteristic  and  constructive  element,  with  its 
great  moderation  in  the  employment  of  ornamentation 
which  marked  the  age  of  Louis  XIII.,  had  to  give  way 
before  this  new  tendency,  and  solidity  and  sterling  worth 
were  superseded  by  a  more  flimsy  and  highly-embellished 
method  of  construction.  One  advantage,  however,  is 
attained  in  the  productions  of  the  Rococo  style,  at  least 
as  regards  the  productions  of  the  best  architects ;  namely, 
that  the  effect  of  masses  and  the  picturesque  arrange- 
ment both  of  the  external  features  and  the  internal 
spaces  seems  to  have  been  thoroughly  grasped,  and  a 
splendid  and  imposing  result  thereby  attained;  and 
although  the  details  may  display  bad  taste,  yet  the  effect 
of  the  whole  is  often  grandiose  and  not  inharmonious. 

This  is  especially  the  case  with  interiors,  because  the 
whole  architectural  ornamentation,  as  well  as  the  furni- 
ture and  other  decorative  objects,  are  fashioned,  even 
to  the  smallest  detail,  in  the  same  style  and  taste,  and 
complete  harmony  is  consequently  secured.  This  offers 
a  great  contrast  to  our  own  times,  when  the  objects 
which  influence  the  general  effect  of  our  sitting-rooms, 
and  even  of  our  state  apartments,  are  huddled  together 
in  the  most  heterogeneous  way,  without  any  reference  to 
the  character  of  the  architectural  enrichments.  This  evil 
seems  only  to  be  avoided  in  cases  where  the  guiding  hand 
of  an  artistically  trained  architect  directs  not  only  the 
architectural  ornamentation  of  such  apartments,  but  also 
the  furnishing  and  introduction  of  the  smallest  details. 


326  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

The  essential  points  of  difference  between  the  Roman, 
Florentine  and  Venetian  styles  cease  with  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Rococo  style  of  the  Renaissance. 

Apart  from  some  modifications  which  were  based  on 
local  traditions  and  influences,  and  which  bear  traces  of 
the  foregoing  period,  the  Roman  Rococo  style  may  be 
viewed  as  that  universally  prevalent. 

190.  The  Rococo  style  may,  in  its  turn,  be  divided 
into  two  periods,  which  are  to  be  distinguished  by 
variety  of  style.  The  first  period  comprises  the  time 
between  its  first  appearance,  in  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth, 
during  which  the  pure  and  simple  forms  of  the  Renais- 
sance were  not  yet  entirely  abandoned,  and  the  advan- 
tages which  have  just  been  alluded  to  are  more  observ- 
able, while  the  defects  which  have  also  been  enumerated 
are  less  so  than  is  the  case  in  the  second  period.  Dur- 
ing this  latter  the  greatest  freedom  in  the  treatment 
of  architectural  forms  prevailed  to  the  disregard  of  all 
laws,  and  free  scope  was  given  to  the  most  fantastic  com- 
binations. This  state  of  things  was  mainly  brought 
about  by  the  influence  of  Lorenzo  Bernini  (1589-1680), 
as  well  as  by  that  of  Francesco  Borromini  (1599-1667). 
The  denomination  Rococo  is  distinctively  assigned  to 
the  taste  of  the  second  period  of  the  style.  Many  shades 
of  difference  have  been  traced  in  it,  especially  of  late 
years,  which  have  been  classified  as  the  Jesuit  Style,  the 
Capuchin  Style,  the  Spanish  Rococo  Style,  etc.  Within 
its  domain  fall  all  the  architectural  productions  from 
the  commencement  of  the  second  period  till  the  latest  re- 
vival of  classical  architecture  during  the  last  century. 
During  this  period  the  deterioration  of  architecture  and 
taste  went  hand  in  hand  with  the  contemporaneous  un- 
natural fashion  of  wigs,  and  the  senseless  want  of  taste 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  AK< !  I  ( !TK<  'TURE 


32' 


in  the  employment  of  pigtails  and  powder;  and  a  certain 
affinity  lift  with  the  architecture  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  and  a  method  of  dressing  the  hair 


Fig.   213.      DECORATIVE  FRAGMENT   FROM    THE   JESUIT   CHURCH 
AT   ROME. 


which  then  prevailed,  has  led  to  the  expression  "Pigtail 
and  Periwig  Style"  being-  employed  to  describe  the 
period  under  consideration. 

191.     The   main   essentials  in   all  the  Rococo  Styles 
are  a  certain  independence  in  the  ornamentation  of  the 


328 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


main  architectural  organism,  the  prominence  of  this 
ornamentation  itself,  and  finally  its  shapes  and  design. 
A  luxurious  elegance  is  displayed  in  the  treatment  of 


Fig.   214.      PART  OF  FACADE  OF  THI3  CHURCH  OF  ST.   PAUL  AND 
ST.  LOUiS  AT  PARIS. 

interiors,  which  was  most  happily  employed  in  the  em- 
bellishment of  the  state  apartments.    Fig.  213  gives  an 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


32!) 


example  of  the  absence  of  connection  among  the  various 
ornaments  employed  in  the  system  of  decoration,  such 
as  was  especially  peculiar  to  the  churches  of  the  Jesuits. 
In  this  style  curved  lines  of  the  most  varied  description 
supersede  all  straight  lines  both  in  ground  plans  and  in 


Fig.  215.  PART  OF  THE  BACK  OF  THE  PITTI  PALACE  AT 
FLORENCE. 


designs,  whilst  the  most  ordinary  and  characteristic 
embellishments  are  volutes,  shellfish,  and  scrolls;  groups 
of  fruit  and  garlands  of  flowers,  hangings,  curtains, 
etc.  (Fig.  214.)  Columns,  pilasters,  and  mouldings  are 
intermingled  and  intertwined  in  a  fantastic  and  mean- 


330 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECT URE 


inglcss  maimer,  the  cornices  are  often  interrupted;  the 
essentially  component  parts  of  the  architecture  are  fre- 
quently mutilated;  for  instance,  columns  and  wall- 
pilasters  are  executed  in  rustic  work,  i.  e.,  formed  of 
extensively  projecting  hewn  stones,  yet  are  furnished 
with  a  capital  and  base  as  is  shown  by  Fig.  215,  which 
is  an  illustration  taken  from  the  Late  Italian  Renais- 
sance.    For  the  sake  of  peculiarity,  the  various  corn- 


Fig.  216. 


ponent  elements  assumed  a  form  diametrically  opposed 
to  their  original  designation;  mere  decorative  and 
secondary  details  were  raised  to  the  rank  of  essentials, 
whilst  the  real  principal  forms  sank  to  an  entirely  sub- 
ordinate position. 

The  greatest  variety  is  displayed  in  the  gables  of 
dwelling-houses.  Figs.  216  and  217  illustrate  the  high- 
est pitch  of  tastelessness  in  this  respect.  At  first  the 
same  were  only  boldly  curved,  or  consisted  of  perpen- 
dicular stages,  the  central  one  of  which  was  crowned 
either  by  a  straight  sided  or  a  gently  curved  pediment, 
whilst  the  usual  scrolls  were  introduced  at  the  sides 
(either  simple  or  sculptured).     (Fig.  214.) 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


331 


The  following  figures,  which  are  taken  from  French 
buildings,  are  intended  to  illustrate  the  treatmenl  of 
the  various  decorative   features  during  the  seventeenth 


Fig.    217.      GABLES    OF    TWO    HOUSES    AT    HAMBURG. 


,  AM 


Fig.   218. 


Fig.  219. 


century :  Figs.  218  and  219  represent  capitals,  Fig.  220 
a  cornice,  Fig.  221  the  termination  of  a  pilaster-strip 
with  panel,  Fig.  222  a  decorative  desitm  in  a  similar 


332 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


panel,  Fig.  223  the  canopy  of  a  panel.  All  these  belong 
to  the  period  of  Louis  XIV.  Fig.  224  represents  the 
setting  of  a  panel,  Fig.  225  the  keystone  of  an  arched 


m  mm 


Fig.  222. 


Fig.    223. 


DECORATIVE   DETAILS    OF    THE    TIME    OF    LOUIS    XIV. 


head-piece,  Fig.  226  the  same  with  a  rectangular  set- 
ting, and  Fig.  227  a  console  supporting  a  balcony,  the 
iron  railing  of  which  is  also  characteristic  of  the  Rococo 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


333 


Fig.  224. 


Fig.  225. 


Style.     These  last  four  Figures  belong  to  the  time  of 
Louis  XV. 

192.  A  deficiency  in  organization  of  form,  from 
which  fault  the  Renaissance  was  not  free  from  its  very 
commencement,  becomes  still  more  perceptible  in  the 
Rococo  Style,  and  continues  to  increase,  till  at  length 


o:J4 


EASY  LESSONS  I>>    ARCHITECTURE 


the  utmost  license  became  usual.  But  in  spite  of  all  this 
it  is  indisputably  necessary  to  accord  the  Rococo  Style 
its  due  merits,  and  accurately  to  determine,  on  the  one 
hand,  in  what  its  defects  consist,  and,  on  the  other, 
what  were  the  causes  and  advantages  which  secured  for 
it  during  a  space  of  two  hundred  years  (1580-1780)  a 
predominance  over  the  whole  civilized  world  in  spite  of 


Fig.   226.  Fig.   227. 

DECORATIVR    DETAILS    OF    THE    TIME    OF    LOUIS    XV. 


the  degeneracy  of  forms  which  it  displayed.  In  [taly 
especially,  the  numerous  buildings  constructed  in  the 
Rococo  Style  must  be  taken  into  consideration  when  the 
architecture  of  that  country  is  viewed  collectively,  and 
its  details  become  the  subject  of  observation  and  study. 
During  the  time  that  the  license  •>!*  the  Rococo  Style 
prevailed,  the  elements  of  the  ancienl  columnar  orders 
were  often    misapplied,  engaged  columns  and  pilasters 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE         335 

were  frequently  so  connected  with  other  side-pilasters 

Which  were  recessed  behind  them  to  the  number  of  one, 
two,  or  even  three,  that  the  cornices  and,  in  fact,  all 
horizontal  mouldings  were  separately  profiled  over  each 
column  or  pilaster.  (See  Fig.  214.)  The  shape  of  the 
various  architectural  features  was  also  strikingly  arbi- 
trary, especially  that  of  the  gables  with  their  varied 
slopes  and  curves.  Individual  forms  no  longer  possess 
an  organic  or  constructive  expressiveness;  they  were 
only  employed  as  a  means  to  insure  the  picturescpie 
grouping  of  the  masses,  and  were  generally  constructed 
in  high  relief,  in  order  to  bring  out  the  duo  effect  of 
light  and  shade.  The  advantage  which  it  is  admitted 
rose  out  of  so  unshackled  a  mode  of  treatment  was  thai 
it  became  easy  to  secure  beautiful  proportions,  as  neither 
traditional  meaning  nor  constructive  motives  were  taken 
into  consideration,  and  the  object,  regardless  of  these, 
was  merely  to  create  forms  and  proportions  which  were 
pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  above  all  a  picturesque  effect. 

193.  Churches,  more  than  any  other  buildings,  un- 
derwent an  entire  change  as  regards  interiors  during 
the  prevalence  of  the  Rococo  Style.  Pillars  only  occur 
in  the  naves  in  isolated  instances,  and  were  mainly  used 
in  external  ornamentation,  their  place  as  supports  to 
the  broad  and  lofty  upper  spaces  being  taken  by  masses 
of  masonry  and  heavy  piers  with  galleries.  Domes  were 
frequently  introduced,  and  were  found,  as  they  could  be 
lighted  from  above,  to  secure  fine  effects  of  illumination. 

The  same  love  of  the  picturesque  which  compelled 
such  changes  in  both  essential  and  subordinate  archi- 
tectural features  led  to  the  employment  of  a  system  of 
internal  decoration  in  which  statues  were  combined 
with  frescoes.    This  was  the  ease  principally,  and  to  an 


336  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

excessive  extent,  in  the  churches  of  the  Jesuits,  and  this 
mode  of  embellishment  became  so  general  and  so  marked 
in  the  churches  of  that  order  that  the  expression  "  Jesuit 
Style"  has  been  adopted  to  designate  it.  The  painting* 
of  the  roofs  played  a  most  important  part  in  the  decora- 
tion of  churches.  Various  kinds  of  settings  were  made 
use  of,  and  other  embellishments,  such  as  festoons  of 
flowers  and  fruits,  and  conchoidal  designs,  were  freely 
introduced.  The  system  of  well  disposed  panelled  ceil- 
ings, which  was  so  prevalent  in  the  Renaissance  Style, 
as  exemplified  in  St.  Peter's  and  elsewhere,  had  to  give 
way  to  the  new  system  of  painting  in  fresco.  The 
whole  space  of  the  vaulting  was  frequently  taken  up 
by  a  single  painting  which  covered  the  entire  surface, 
representing  "glories,"  surrounded  by  other  groups  in 
a  silting  or  recumbent  posture,  with  architectural  de- 
tails painted  in  perspective,  and  the  heavenly  canopy 
represented  in  blue  and  gold.  In  order  to  give  an 
appearance  of  reality  to  the  hovering  figures,  detached 
parts  of  the  same  were  frequently  allowed  to  extend 
beyond  the  setting  or  enclosing  border.  Fresco  painting 
consequently  became  all-important,  but  its  very  promi- 
aence  not  un frequently  militated  against  the  general 
harmonious  effect  of  the  architecture. 

The  same  license  in  the  treatment  and  application  of 
forms  is  also  displayed  in  secular  buildings.  The 
facades  and  their  details  were  especially  treated  with 
the  greatest  freedom,  and  the  original  constructive  in- 
tention of  the  latter  was  no  longer  a  matter  of  considera- 
tion.  Fig.  228  gives  an  example  of  the  Rococo  style  as 
applied  to  dwelling-houses. 

The  taste  for  picturesque  effect  which  plays  such  an 
important  part  in  the  productions  of  this  style,  found 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  337 


Fig.    2281      PORTION    OF 


THE   FACADE   AT    PARIS    IN   THE   STYLE 
OF  LOUIS  XV. 


338  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

ample  scope  in  the  designs  for  vestibules  and  courts. 
The  object  which  the  architects  were  eager  to  obtain 
was  that  the  view  from  the  gateway  should  comprise 
some  important  detail,  and  convey  an  imposing  or,  at 
least  pleasing  perspective  effect.  Particular  attention 
was  also  paid  to  staircases.  They  were  generally  con- 
structed with  a  view  to  effect,  and  had  several  landings 
with  broad  low  steps,  and  had  for  the  most  part  stone 
balustrades,  and  were  covered  over  with  rich  vaults. 

194.  In  the  eighteenth  century  circumstances  oc- 
curred, which  were  favored  by  the  national  tendency  of 
that  epoch,  and  set  a  bound  to  any  further  deterioration 
in  architecture,  though  it  was  scarcely  possible  to  sink 
to  a  lower  pitch  than  that  which  it  had  then  attained. 
These  altered  circumstances  were,  however,  not  power- 
ful enough  to  bring  about  an  entirely  new  development. 
Rational,  or  rather  restrictive  criticism,  was,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  spirit  of  analysis,  more  suited  to  restrain 
further  advance  in  a  false  direction  than  to  call  a  new 
line  of  art  into  existence  by  means  of  creations  demon- 
strative of  genius.  By  the  discovery  of  Ilerculaneum 
and  Pompeii  a  veneration  for  antiquity  was  again 
aroused,  which  was,  moreover,  fostered  by  engravings  of 
the  best  works  of  art  that  were  preserved  in  museums, 
such  as  views  of  the  temples  at  Paestum,  as  well  as  by 
Piranesi's  masterly  views  of  Roman  monuments,  and, 
finally,  by  new  editions  of  the  writings  of  Vitruvius, 
with  suitable  explanations  and  illustrations.  Although 
in  other  countries  than  Italy  the  Rococo  style  pre- 
vailed for  a  considerable  time  longer,  yet  a  reaction 
set  in  in  favor  of  the  efforts  and  tendencies  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  The  further  progress  of  the  Rococo 
style  was  prevented,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  artists  were 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  339 

withdrawn  from  the  sphere  of  art  into  the  colder  and 
reflective  regions  of  science. 

195.  Although  the  classical  architecture  of  antiquity- 
came  thus  again  into  repute,  yet,  owing  to  the  waul 
of  thorough  studies  of  the  monuments  themselves,  the 
precepts  of  Vitruvius  and  the  most  celebrated  architects 
of  the  sixteenth  century  still  remained  in  vogue,  espec- 
ially those  of  Vignola  and  Palladio.  The  studies  were 
consequently  only  second-hand,  instead  of  being  de- 
rived from  the  original  sources.  The  architects  were 
imitators  of  imitators.  It  is  therefore  natural  that  their 
constructions,  to  which  they  strove  more  than  ever  to 
impart  repose  and  severity  of  style,  appeared  only  spirit- 
less and  insipid.  Architecture  seemed  especially  to  lose 
in  life  and  activity.  Although  no  retrogression  took 
place,  still  no  progress  was  brought  about;  but  a  con- 
dition of  lassitude  supervened,  which,  after  the  excesses 
of  the  period  which  had  so  recently  elapsed,  had  not 
internal  strength  enough  to  expand  into  a  free,  reno- 
vated, and  independent  artistic  activity. 


TIMBER  ARCHITECTURE. 

196.  In  the  preceding  divisions  of  the  work  the 
peculiarities  of  those  architectural  styles  have  been 
described  which  required  consideration  either  owing  to 
their  monumental  and  artistic  importance,  or  to  the 
reference  they  bore  to  and  influence  which  they  exercised 
upon  the  succeeding  style.  It  still  remains  to  take 
notice  of  a  method  of  building  which  occurs  in  con- 
nection with  several  of  the  styles  which  have  been  de- 
scribed, and  displays  the  features  appropriate  to  each, 


340 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


but  in  which  the  material  employed,  namely,  wood, 
has  given  rise  to  a  certain  general  similarity  of  aspect, 
differing  in  this  respect  from  stone  or  brick.  But  even 
in  buildings  constructed  of  this  material  two  varieties 
occur;  that  is  to  say,  those  framed  or  half  timbered 
houses  in  which  wood  is  employed  in  connection  with 
brick,  and  those  in  which  it  forms  the  only  constructive 


Fig.  229.  VIEW  OF  TUB  WOOD  CHURCH  AT  BURGUND. 


material,  and  no  stone  or  brick  is  introduced.  To  this 
latter  class  belong  the  ancient  wood  monuments  of  Nor- 
way and  the  houses  which  occur  in  mountainous  dis- 
tricts, of  which  Switzerland,  and  especially  the  Bernese 
Oberland,  offers  the  most  beautiful  examples.  Conse- 
quently  the  designation,  Swiss  houses,  or  Swiss  cottages, 
is  that  which  is  most  generally  applied  to  the  entire 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


341 


class  of  houses  which  are  peculiar  in  ;i  more  or  less 
similar  shape  to  other  mountain  districts,  especially  tin- 
Tyrol.  The  Russian  block  or  log-houses  must  also  be 
mentioned  as  being  constructed  on  a  similar  plan. 


Fig.  230.     FRONT  VIEW  OF  BAY-WORK  HOUSE  AT  HALBERSTADT. 


The  wood  buildings  of  Norway  lay  claim  to  a  certain 
monumental  and  historical  importance,  partly  because 
they  belong  to  the  oldest  class  of  buildings  of  this 
description,  and  partly  owing  to  the  purpose  for  which 
they  were  erected,  namely,  to  serve  as  churches.  The 
case  is  different  as  regards  the  merit  of  their  artistic 
construction   and  beauty  of  shape,   in  both  of  which 


342 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


points  the  standard  attained  is  not  a  high  one,  as  is 
shown  by  Fig'.  231.  The  details  principally  show 
traces  of  the  architectural  styles  prevalent  at  the  time 


Fig.  Z31.     DETAIL  OF   Fig.   230. 


of  their  erection,  viz.,  the  Romanesque  and  Byzantine, 
while  the  main  forms  must  be  considered  as  the  result 
of  a  severe  climate.  The  perishable  nature  of  the  ma- 
terial employed  was  also  naturally  prejudicial  to  any 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE         343 

advanced  and  regular  development  of  architectural  skill. 
From  these  causes  the  whole  design  assumed  a  pyramidal 
shape,  whilst  the  climate  necessitated  a  mode  of  con- 
struction which  is  peculiar  to  the  buildings  in  question. 
As  a  protection  against  its  rigors  the  structures  were 
surrounded  by  covered  passages  ornamented  externally 
with  those  little  arcades  which  are  a  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  Romanesque  style,  whilst  the  roofs  were 
necessarily  very  steep  in  shape  on  account  of  the  heavy 
falls  of  snow,  and  were  covered  with  wood  shingles, 
tiles,  or  slates.  The  form  of  construction  is  rather 
rough,  for  the  corners  are  generally  formed  of  rude 
logs,  whilst  the  walls  between  merely  consist  of  upright 
boards  joined  to  one  another.  Churches  of  this  descrip- 
tion are  known  in  Norway  by  the  name  of  Fascine 
Churches.  Although  the  construction  is  thus  artless, 
yet  an  effort  to  enrich  the  whole  by  individual  details 
and  by  the  employment  of  painted  embellishments  is 
frequently  to  be  noticed.  This  is  especially  effected  by 
means  of  arabesque-like  carvings  on  the  doorways  and 
gables. 

In  the  interior,  columns  wrought  out  of  trunks  of 
trees,  support  either  a  barrel  vault  which  lies  over  the 
nave  of  the  building,  and  is  constructed  with  boards, 
or  else  a  flat  roof  of  the  same  material.  The  capitals 
of  these  columns,  when  they  do  not  consist  merely  of 
rings,  are  generally  an  imitation  of  the  Romanesque 
cubical  capital.  The  churches  are  usually  dark,  inas- 
much as  the  only  light  which  they  receive  is  from  little 
windows  let  in  high  up  in  the  structure. 

Framed  houses  are  especially  numerous  in  the  Harz 
Mountains  in  Germany.  In  the  oldest  specimens  the 
ornamentation  has  affinity  with  the  Gothic  style,  whilst 


344 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE' 


the  larger  number  show  traces  of  the  later  Renaissance. 
The  most  characteristic  feature  of  these  buildings  is 
that  the  stories  are  not  placed  perpendicularly  one 
above   another,   but  that   each  overhangs  the   one  im- 


Fig.   232.      DETAIL  OF  A   BAY-WORK  HOUSE. 


mediately  beneath  it  (Fig.  230).  This  overhanging  con- 
struction gives  scope  for  much  external  enrichment,  and 
especially  for  that  which  forms  the  peculiar  ornament 
of  these  buildings,  namely,  the  carved  or  fluted  brackets 
which  support  the  walls  of  tin-  story  above,  and  the 
spaces  between  these  brackets  (Figs.  231  and  232).    The 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


345 


wall-space  below  these  is  not  always  tinted  or  carved, 

but  sometimes  covered  with  a  more  or  less  ornamental 
outer  coating  of  upright  or  sloping  timbers  (Fig.  233). 

It  was  by  endeavors  such  as  these  just  mentioned  that 
an  attempt  was  made  to  bring  wooden  buildings  within 
the  range  of  artistic  productions,  and  though  the  build- 
ings remained  tasteless,  still  an  attempt  was  made  to 
gain  enrichment  by  chamfering  the  projecting  ends  of 
the  beams,  and  very  frequently  by  filling  in  between  the 
timbers  with  courses  of  various  kinds  of  stone.  This 
kind  of  architecture  is  frequently  employed  both  in  town 


^m^Mr\w\y£ym. 


Fig.   233.      PORTION  OF  BAY-WORK  HOUSE. 


houses  and  public  buildings,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  Town 
Hall  at  Wernigerode ;  and  in  a  simple  form  in  domestic 
buildings  in  the  country. 

The  third  class  of  timber  buildings  which  has  to  be  de- 
scribed is  the  so-called  Swiss-Cottage  style  (Fig.  2:14V 
This  class  belongs  exclusively  to  the  country  in  contra- 


3415 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE  34  i 

distinction  to  the  town.  It  is  only  quite  lately  that  its 
application  has  been  extended  to  other  purposes,  as  for 
example  (and  in  combination  with  framed  half-tim- 
bered construction),  to  railway-stations,  &c. 

The  external  walls  of  Swiss  houses  are,  in  the  case  of 
the  log-houses,  generally  formed  of  trunks  of  trees  ar- 
ranged horizontally  and  overlapping  one  another,  the  in- 
terstices being  closed  up  and  daubed  over.  At  the  present 
day,  however,  solid  walls  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  or, 
at  any  rate,  the  lower  part  of  the  house  is  frequently 
solid.  In  the  first-named  mode  of  construction  the 
trunks  are  either  carved  and  left  visible,  or  they  are 
cased  by  wrought  boards. 

The  main  characteristic  of  these  houses  is  the  broad 
overhanging  roof,  which  projects  over  both  the  gables  and 
the  sides,  and  underneath  which  elegant  galleries  with 
carved  wooden  staircases  are  sheltered.  These  galleries 
frequently  occur  one  above  another  in  the  different 
stories  of  the  building,  and  they  sometimes  run  all  round 
the  house,  though  they  are  more  frequently  met  with  on 
one  or  two  sides  only.  Wooden  steps  generally  lead  up 
to  these  galleries  from  the  outside,  when  they  are  not 
high.  The  rafters  of  these  projecting  roofs  are  left  bare, 
and  generally  carved  in  a  curved  shape.  The  gables  and 
the  eaves  of  the  roof  are  lined  by  boarding  carved  with 
various  ornaments,  which  materially  tends  to  increase  the 
picturesque  effect  and  the  elegance  of  the  building.  The 
roof  is  not  steep  in  its  pitch,  and  is  covered  with  wood, 
slate,  or  slabs  of  stone. 

All  hough  the  characteristics  of  this  class  of  buildings 
are  generally  uniform,  yet  shades  of  difference  occur 
here  and  there.  These  deviations  are  perceptible  in  the 
various  countries  where  wooden  houses  are  met  with,  and 


348 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


HBHB 


M    .. 


EASY  LESSONS  IX  ARCHITECTURE  349 

are  found  even  in  the  different  cantons  of  Switzerland. 

It  would,  however,  carry  us  too  Ear  to  enter  more  fully 
into  these  various  points  of  difference.  Fig.  235  exhibits 
a  characteristic  example  of  one  of  these  Swiss-cottages 
or  chalets. 


TABLES  OP  STYLES  BY  COMPARISON. 

After  the  detailed  description  of  architectural  styles 
which  has  now  been  given,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  add  the 
following  table  of  styles,  which  is  to  a  certain  extent  the 
resume  of  the  whole. 

I.  Old  Indian  Style. — Childlike  helplessness.  Pre- 
tentious mode  of  expression  combined  with  mythical 
freedom  of  imagination. 

II.  Egyptian  Style. — Solemn  earnestness  and  impos- 
ing aspect. 

III.  Grecian  Style. — Nobility  of  expression  and  of 
the  whole  effect.     Stately  calm. 

IV.  Roman  Style. — Manly  vigor  in  form  and  con- 
ception. 

Y.     Chinese  Style. — Punchinello. 

VI.  Early  Christian  Basilica  Style. — Expression  of 
independence  with  the  struggle  for  freedom  from  foreign 
influences. 

VII.  The  Romanesque  Style. — An  expression  of  mel- 
ancholy, but  at  the  same  time  combined  with  geniality 
in  sacred  and  private  buildings,  and  grimness  in  castles 
and  strongholds. 

VIII.  Moorish  Style. — Free-vent  to  over-wrought 
fancy,  and  eccentric  tone  in  conjunction  with  spectacu- 
lar display.    The  spirit  of  chivalry  permeates  the  whole. 


350  EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE 

IX.  The  Pointed  or  Gothic  Stylo. — The  expression  of 
inward  faith  till  it  attains  exaggerated  enthusiasm,  ever 
pointing  heavenwa  n  Is. 

X.  English  Late-Gothic  (Tudor)  Style.— Gives  the 
notion  of  practical  worldly-wisdom  and  self-reliance,  and 
pursues  its  own  course  when  allied  to  what  is  in- 
congruous. 

XI.  Renaissance  Style: — 

Commencement :  Delight  at  meeting  again  after  a  long 

separation. — Approaches. 
Middle:     Appreciation  and  influence  of  new  relations. 

established  after  a  long  interruption. 
End:     Feeling  of  uneasiness;  efforts  to  attain  freedom. 

XII.  Baroque  Style. — Freedom  when  attained  mis- 
used to  excess. 

Afterwards  the  following  phases  occur: — 
1st  Phase :  Stagnation. — Physical  and  moral  exhaustion. 

— Sleep. 
2nd  Phase :  Transition  to  waking  and  rousing,  owing  to 

various  influencing  forces  and  visions  of  the  past. 
3rd  Phase :  Beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  lethar- 
gic  and    meaningless   wanderings,    clinging  now   to 
this,  now  that  prominent  object. 
4tb  Phase:  The  present  day. — Fully  brisk  and  awake, 
but  still  under  control. — Efforts  to  find  the  right  path 
at  one  time  approaching,  at  another  departing  from 
the  smooth  track,  because  the  goal  still  appears  in- 
distinct and  assumes  various  aspect. 
The  relations  between  artists  and  the  world  at  large 
are  reciprocal;  art  is  neither  formed  nor  developed  by 
one  of  them  alone.    The  endeavors  of  the  artist  can  only 
be  effective  when  they  correspond  to  the  spiritual  and 
intellectual  feelings  of  the  people.    Artists  are  only  able 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  ARCHITECTURE         351 

to  raise  art  to  its  highest  pitch  when  an  appreciation  of 

and  a  desire  for  artistic  productions  have  become  uni- 
versal, and  are  conjoined  with  a  general  perception  of 
what  is  good  and  beautiful  in  art.  After  this  level  has 
been  attained,  the  criticism  of  the  people  at  large  who 
have  been  trained  and  rendered  intelligent  judges  by 
good  works  of  art,  reacts  on  the  artist  and  urges  him  to 
attain  a  higher  stage  of  development. 

It  therefore  seems  necessary,  if  the  efforts  of  architects 
are  to  attain  the  wished-for  results,  that  the  principles 
to  be  followed  should  be  known  to  non-professional  per- 
sons, and  especially  to  all  educated  people,  who  exercise 
any  influence  over  public  opinion,  and,  lastly,  to  those 
engaged  in  industrial  pursuits,  who  by  their  works  are 
called  upon  to  second  and  facilitate  these  efforts  on  the 
part  of  the  architect. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  book  will  in  some  degree  con- 
tribute to  bring  about  this  happy  result,  by  helping  to 
arouse  a  feeling  for,  and  a  general  interest  in,  architec- 
ture as  an  art  and  in  its  works,  and  by  explaining  much 
that  renders  it  difficult  to  discriminate  between  the  good 
and  the  bad.  Much  would  be  gained  by  the  whole  com- 
munity beyond  the  satisfaction  which  persons  ol  culture 
cannot  but  feel,  in  critically  distinguishing  various 
styles,  and  estimating  the  value  of  each. 


ARCHITECTURAL 
DRAWING 

SELF-TAUGHT 


PREFACE 

Having  been  more  or  less  interested  in  Archi 
tecture  and  the  building  trades  for  nearly  a  half 
a  century,  I  have  in  that  time  become  acquainted 
with  a  great  many  workmen,  who,  while  filling  a 
subordinate  position,  possessed  aspirations  and 
ambitions,  which,  had  they  had  a  fair  knowledge 
of  drawing  and  geometry,  would  have  lifted  them 
to  the  hightest  place  in  the  department  in  which 
they  labored.  To  give  similar  good  fellows  a 
chance  to  obtain  the  necessary  knowledge  to 
enable  them  to  apply  for  the  better  positions 
with  a  certainty  of  their  being  able  to  fill  them 
with  credit  is  the  motive  which  has  prompted 
the  compilation  of  this  book,  and,  knowing  the 
quality  and  magnitude  of  their  wants,  by 
personal  contact  with  the  workmen  in  the  shop 
and  on  the  building,  I  think  I  am  qualified,  to  a 
large  extent,  to  cull  from  the  vast  treasure  house 
of  industrial  and  technical  literature,  which  added 
to  my  own  experience,  to  present  to  the  work- 
man in  the  simplest  form  possible  the  material 

he  requires  to  help  him  along  in  the  struggle  for 

in 


IV  PRKFACE 

better  conditions.  To  attempt  to  write  a  book 
on  the  subject  of  architectural  drawing  and  claim 
for  it  originality,  is  simply  out  of  the  question; 
for  very  little  that  is  original  can  be  said,  indeed 
very  little  is  wanted  to  be  said,  for  the  literature 
now  obtainable  seems  to  cover  every  point  and 
every  phase  of  the  subject. 

It  may  be  asked  then:  "Why  make  another 
book  on  the  subject?"  This  seems  a  just  and 
reasonable  query,  and  one  that  deserves  a  well 
considered  answer,  and  I  will,  to  the  best  of  my 
ability,  endeavor  to  make  such  answer.  First, 
then,  while  admitting  that  all  that  need  be  said 
on  the  subject  has  been  said,  and  better  said  than 
I  can  say  it,  yet,  it  is  so  scattered  and  broken  up, 
a  bit  here,  and  a  bit  there,  that  the  student  for 
whom  this  work  is  prepared  would  require  to 
own  a  gold  mine  to  be  able  to  purchase  all  the 
works  containing  just  what  he  requires;  secondly, 
as  this  work  is  specially  designed  for  active 
workmen  who  have  no  time  to  wade  through 
ponderous  tomes  to  find  what  may  be  a  simple 
matter  after  all,  they  would  probably  be  forced 
to  forego  the  knowledge  if  it  could  not  be 
obtained  in  a  cheap  and  handy  form,  therefore, 
it  is  thought  that  by  gathering  together,  and 
putting  within  reach  of  those  who  want  them,  a 


I*  REPACK 


series  of  instructions  containing  what  is  con 
sidered  the  most  suitable  to  satisfy  the  require- 
ments I  have  undertaken  to  fill,  and  which  1 
hope  will  prove  satisfactory  to  the  young  work- 
man. Doubtless  there  are  many  things  in  this 
little  work  that,  in  the  opinion  of  many  persons, 
might  be  dispensed  with;  it  may  be,  and  likely  is, 
that  there  are  many  good  things  omitted,  many 
things  that  would  have  proved  extremely  useful, 
but  in  palliation  I  can  justly  say,  that  everything 
I  have  found  on  the  subject,  that  was  plain, 
simple  and  within  the  capacity  of  most  of  the 
persons  this  book  will  reach,  and  that  were  not 
too  extensive,  I  have  made  use  of,  and  to  the 
best  of  my  ability  have  placed  them  before  my 
readers  in  such  language  as  I  am  sure  will  meet 
with  their  approval. 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 
INDEX 

A 

Page 

Advice  to  draftsmen 12 

Advice  to  Young  Men 13 

Advantage  of  knowing  how 14 

A  box  of  instruments 35 

American  instruments  '■'>'.> 

Attic  plan  for  brick  cottage Ill 

Ashler  work 118 

Arch  over  window 1 2K 

A  rampart  arch 131 

A  straight  arch 131 

Arches  of  various  kinds 14<> 

Arabesque  fretwork 172 

Anthemion    185 

A  wrought  iron  design 213 

A  circular  ornamental  design 215 

Arrangement  of  flutes  and  fillets 222 

Arrangement  of  Doric  order 228 

Advice  to  student '-Ml 

Alphabets 246 

A  method  of  hatching  showing  materials 258 

A  parting  word 262 

B 

Beam  compasses   31 

Brown's  ellipsograph 34 

Bow  pens  and  pencils 43 

Boxwood  scales 40 

Brick  cottage  plans 108 

Brick  foundations 114 

Blocked  coursed  work 118 

Bond  in  brickwork 119 

Brick  courses     120 

Brickwork  generally 121 

Bonding  in  0-inch  walls 122 

Bed  of  arch  130 

Brick  and  stone  arches 145 

Box  frame  weights 162 

Balusters 175 

Barge  boards 179 

Border  mouldings 1 s;! 

Border,  Egyptian  style 186 

VII 


VIII  INDEX 

Page 

Border,  Byzantine  style 189 

Byzantine  Rosette 189 

Balustrades 202 

Balcony 209 

Block  letters 246 

Blue  prints 261 

C 

Cheap  drawing  boards 19 

Cartridge  paper 20 

Cleaning  pen 52 

Circular  ornaments 60 

Circular  segments til 

Curves  of  various  grades 63 

Circles  and  straight  lines  mixed  67 

Curved  mouldings 68 

Compass  drawn  scrolls 85 

Cutting  lead  pencils 98 

Cellar  plan  for  cottage 108 

Crown  of  arches 129 

Casings  for  door  and  window  finish 158 

Cornice  for  frame  building 159 

Cornice  for  brick  building 161 

Curved  and  straight  lines 162 

Complicated  fret  work 173 

Chain  moulding 177 

Continuous  moulding 177 

Curved  line  ornaments 178 

Cut  scroll  work 179 

Conventional  flower 184 

Conventional  lotus 186 

Cut  Gothic  border 190 

Cinquefoil  Gothic  ornament 193 

Curves  for  cut  work 198 

Cut  work  for  barge  boards,  etc ! 199 

Carvers'  ornaments 200 

Cut  work  for  balustrades 202 

Columns 219 

Columns,  fluted 220 

Columns  with  fillets 221 

<  'olumns  with  fillets  and  reeds 332 

( Nirintliian  order  of  architecture 236 

Column  and  section,  Corinthian 237 

Colors  used  in  drawings 349 

Colors  representing  materials 254 

D 

Drawing  hoards.  How  to  make 1H 

1  hawing  board  grooved 19 

Drawing  paper 30 


INDEX  1 

PAGB 

Damp-stretching 22 

Drawing  table 24 

Drawing  pens - 38 

Drawing  lines 53 

Drawing  circles 5  l 

Drawing  concentric  curves 55 

Drawing  eccentric  curves 55 

Drawing  circular  ornaments 57 

Drawing  variable  curved  ornaments 58 

Doric  mouldings 73 

Describing  ellipses  by  aid  of  trammel ?n 

Dotted  line  work 88 

Dimension  lines !)•,' 

Different  grades  of  pencils 90 

Drawing  arches 127 

Doorway  entrance 151 

Diagonals  and  squares 1 64 

Drops  for  porches  and  verandas '.203 

Drops  for  balcony 20!) 

1  )ra wings  for  iron  work '-21:5 

1  )ra  wing  sections  of  fluted  columns 220 

Dividing  circumferences  of  columns 22 1 

Drawing  of  Tuscan  order 226 

Doric  order  of  architecture 228 

Drawing  the  Doric  order  228 

Design  of  Ionic  capital  and  entablature 234 

Designs  for  letters 244 

Description  of  colors. 250 

Defining  use  of  colors 253 

E 

Ellipsograph 33 

Ellipsograph  illustrated 34 

English  drawing  instruments 39 

Elliptical  mouldings 76 

Elliptical  curves  by  string 77 

Elliptical  curve  by  trammel 7S 

Egg  shaped  figures,  How  to  draw  them  82 

Examples  in  line  work  86 

Erasions 98 

End  elevations  and  section  of  cottage 113 

English  bond  of  brickwork 124 

Elevation  of  brickwork 125 

Extrados  of  arches 129 

Elliptical  arches  in  brickwork 134 

Elevation  of  doorway 151 

Elevation  of  window 153 

Elevation  of  inside  door  and  finish 155 

Egyptian  ornament 180 

Elaborated  scroll 182 


2  INDEX 

Egg  and  dart 183 

Echinus   183 

Egyptian  lotus  border 186 

Elaborate  tracery 197 

Eave  boards " 207 

Elliptical  wrought  iron  scroll 213 

Elliptical  ornamentation 216 

Entasis  of  columns 225 

Elevation  of  Tuscan  order 226 

Elevation  of  Doric  order 228 

Elevation  of  Composite  order 230 

F 

Free-hand  drawing 11 

French  curves 26 

Flat  scales  80 

Figured  plans 105 

Floor  plans  for  cottage 110 

Front  elevation  of  brick  cottage 112 

Foundation  footings 114 

Fourteen-inch  brick  wall 125 

Flat  arches  in  brickwork 141 

Finish  of  inside  door 155 

Fret  work 171 

Figured  ornaments 175 

Finished  scroll  work 179 

Fence  boards,  ornamental 211 

Fluting  columns 218 

Flutes  and  fillets 221 

Figures  for  drawings 242 

Flowing  of  colors 250 

G 

Good  tools 17 

( Ireek  mouldings 69 

( rothic  brick  arches 134 

( rothic  arches  generally L3fi 

( rothic  ogee  arches 138 

Gothic  arches  of  various  kinds 146 

( Jutter  and  cornice 159 

( Jutter  and  cornice  open 161 

Gothic  perforated  work 166 

(ireek  fret  work 171 

Greek  lily 184 

Greek  anthemim 185 

Gothic  ornament  in  border 190 

( Joth  ic  tracery 194 

Greek  Ionic 233 


INDEX  3 

Page 
H 

Hard  rubber  scales 49 

Handy  method  of  drawing  scrolls 84 

Hatching  lines 89 

How  to  hold  the  lead  pencil 95 

Herring  bone  brickwork 126 

How  to  describe  an  elliptical  arch  134 

Horseshoe  arches 139 

Horseshoe  arches  of  several  styles 146 

Hexagon  ornament 167 

Handling  brushes  in  coloring 251 

Hatching,  showing  materials  , 258 

I 

Introduction 11 

Instruments  in  Morocco  case 36 

Instruments  in  wooden  box 37 

Inserting  ink  in  pen 51 

Ink  brush 52 

Inking  in 52 

Inking  lines 53 

Intrados  of  arches 129 

Inside  shutter  finish 152 

Inside  window  finish 153 

Inside  finish  of  sliding  doors 156 

Introduction  to  the  order  of  architecture 218 

Ionic  mouldings 234 

J 

Joining  cui-ves 66 

Joining  straight  lines  to  curved  lines 67 

Joints  in  masonry 119 

Joints  in  brickwork 120 

Joints  in  bonded  work  121 

Joints  in  arches 130 

Joints  shown  in  brick  arches 140 

Jamb  in  section 151 

Joint  of  sliding  doors 157 

K 

Keystone  of  arch 129 

L 

Linework 85 

Linework  in  shade  and  shadow  88 

Laying  off  dimensions 91 

Lead  pencils  cut  to  shape 93 

Lancet  arches 136 

Lintels  of  stone 146 


4  INDEX 

Page 

Laying  out  diagonals 165 

Laying  out  hexagon  work 167 

Laying  out  turned  ornaments 175 

Laying  out  scrolls 178 

Lotus  ornamentations 186 

Laying  out  tracery 196 

Laying  out  cut  work 208 

Laying  out  flutes  of  columns 218 

Laying  out  fillets  and  flutes 221 

Laying  out  letters 243 

Lettering  generally 244 

Laying  on  of  colors 252 

M 

Manner  of  sharpening  pen 42 

Manner  of  closing  pen 43 

Mouldings 69 

Methods  of  describing  Greek  mouldings 71 

Method  of  describing  ellipses 77 

Method  of  describing  arch 134 

Moorish  arches 139 

Moorish  arches  of  various  kinds 146 

Miscellaneous  arches 149 

Mixed  ornament 168 

Moorish  fret  work 1 72 

Mixed  Greek  ornament 1 74 

Mouldings  of  Tuscan  order 226 

Mouldings  for  Doric  order 228 

Modillions 238 

Miscellaneous  matters 241 

Making  of  letters 242 

Methods  of  coloring 250 

Mixing  colors 252 

Materials  shown  by  hatching 258 

Method  of  mixing  ink 260 

O 

Ornamental  curves 59 

Ornaments  from  circles 60 

Ovals 81 

Ornamental  line  work 87 

Ogee  arches i.37 

Ogee  Tudor  arches 138 

Ogee  Gothic  arches 138 

Openings  in  stone  work 143 

Ornamental  Gothic  work 166 

Ornamental  cut  work 1 99 

Ornamental  balustrades 205 

Ornamental  iron  work  ...     215 

Order  on  architecture 223 


INDEX  5 

Pagb 

Open  letters 244 

Old  style  letters 245 

P 

Preface  2 

Paper  tacks 21 

Prices  of  drawing  pens 39 

Pens,  with  and  without  ink 51 

Proper  method  of  holding  pen 90 

Position  of  hand  when  drawing 95 

Pencil  lines  and  erasions 97 

Preliminary  rough  sketches 102 

Plans  in  part 105 

Plan  of  cellar , 108 

Plan  of  courses  in  brickwork 125 

Plan  of  details 150 

Pocket  for  sliding  doors 157 

Plan  of  pocket  for  sliding  doors 157 

Perforated  stone  work 166 

Panel  work  in  fret 201 

Pickets  for  ornamental  fence 211 

Proportions  for  Tuscan  order 226 

Proportions  of  Doric  order 228 

Plan  and  elevation  of  Ionic  column 234 

Plan  and  elevation  of  Corinthian  order 236 

Proportion  of  Composite  order 239 

Proportion  of  letters 243 

Preparing  paper  for  coloring 249 

Preparing  colors 252 

Preventing  ink  from  "creeping" 260 


Quatrefoil    191 

Quatereal  columns 218 

R 

Roman  mouldings 70 

Rubber  for  erasing 98 

Rough  sketches 100 

Rough  sketches  figured 102 

Rough  sketches  of  details 103 

Random  rubble  work 116 

Rough  stone  work 116 

Rubble  work  coursed 116 

Rustic  stone  work 117 

Running  bond  in  brickwork 123 

Rubble  arches 146 

Rosette,  Egyptian 186 

Roman  border 187 


6  INDEX 

Page 

Roman  Rosette 188 

Roman  ornament 188 

Running  elliptical  ornament 216 

Roman  Ionic  order 233 

Runic  letters 245 

Retouching  colored  drawings 252 

Rough  shading 259 

Reissman's  "Blue  print  making" 261 

S 

Set  squares 26 

Swivel  squares 28 

Straight  edges 29 

Scale-triangular 30 

Splices 33 

Swiss  drawing  instruments 38 

Steel  scales 47 

Showing  various  curves 63 

Scrolls,  how  to  draw  them 83 

String  and  pencil . .    84 

Sharpening  lead  pencils  properly 94 

Sketches  of  windows 104 

Scale  for  work 107 

Section  of  brick  cottage 113 

Side  elevation  of  cottage 113 

Stone  foundation 114 

Stone  walls ." 115 

Squared  stone  work 119 

Semi-circular  arches 127 

Span  of  arches 129 

Spring  of  arches 129 

Segmental  arches 132 

Segment  of  Tudor  arches 132 

Semi-elliptical  arches 133 

Stone  arches  with  offsets 143 

Segmental  Gothic  arches 147 

Section  of  door  jamb 151 

Shutter  linings : 152 

Splay  of  window  jambs 154 

Section  of  window  jamb  and  finish 154 

Sliding  doors 156 

Section  of  sliding  door  pocket 156 

Section  of  corner  studs 158 

Section  of  window  finish 158 

Section  of  cornice 159 

Section  of  cornice  for  brief  building 161 

Section  for  box  frame 162 

Section  for  window  sill 162 

Straight  and  curved  lines 163 

Squares  and  diagonals 164 


INDEX  7 

Page 

Straight  line  ornamentation  . . ; 169 

Strap  work   170 

Star  work 170 

Scroll  work  178 

Scroll  work  for  carvers 200 

Scroll  work  on  elliptical  plan 216 

Something  on  architectural  orders 218 

Sections  of  columns 219 

Section  of  Doric  order 228 

Sections  of  Ionic  order 234 

Single  line  letters 245 

Shaded  letters  and  figures 247 

Stone,  wood  and  iron  shown  by  colors 257 

Shading  for  different  forms 259 

T 

Thumb  tacks 21 

Tee  squares 25 

Trammel 31 

The  drawing  pen  discussed 41 

Triangles 47 

The  lead  pencil 93 

Tee  square  and  pencil 95 

Thrust  in  arches 130 

Tudor  arch 132 

Tudor  arches  of  various  kinds 148 

Ti  les  and  diagonals 166 

Trefoil  ornament 173,  191 

Turned  ornaments 175 

Tracery 194 

The  Tuscan  order  of  architecture 225 

The  Grecian  Doric 230 

The  Ionic  order  of  architecture 234 

The  Corinthian  order  of  architecture 238 

The  Composite  order  of  architecture 239 

The  use  of  colors  in  drawing 249 

Tints  in  coloring 252 

U 

Use  of  bow-pen  and  pencil 44 

Uses  of  pencils  generally 46 

Urns   175 

Use  of  colors  in  drawings 249 

Use  of  hair  pencils  for  coloring 252 

Use  of  heavy  ink  lines 260 

V 

Variable  curves 27 

Various  mouldings 76 


8  INDEX 

Page 

Vertical  measurements 106 

Voussoirs 129 

Versed  sine  of  arches 12H 

Various  arches 140 

Verge  boards 1 7  i) 

Veranda  cut  work 202 

Volutes  i  n  Ionic  order 237 

Various  letteri         244 

W 

Walls  of  stone 114 

Walls  of  brick Ill 

Window  openings  in  brick  walls 142 

Window  linings 152 

Window  frame  with  weights 162 

Window  finish  at  sill 163 

Wave  mouldings 177 

Wave  scrolls 178 

Work  for  balconies 202 

What  materials  are  represented  by  colors 255 


Plate  1. 

Plate  2. 

Plate  3. 

Plate  4. 

Plate  5. 

Plate  G. 

Plate  7. 

Plate  8. 

Plate  9. 

Plate  10. 

Plate  11. 

Plate  12. 

Plate  13. 

Plate  14. 

Plate  15. 

Plate  16. 

Plate  IT. 

Plate  18. 

PLATES 

PAGE 

Eighteen  illustrations 1(5 

Plan  of  Cottage 32 

Full  Frame  for  Cottage 48 

Showing  Disposition  of  Joists 64 

Elevation  of  Front  and  End  of  Cottage 80 

Constructive  Details    96 

Showing  Cornice,  and  Roof  Construction 112 

Shows  Plans  of  Windows,  Doors,  etc 128 

Inside  Finish  of  Windows  and  Doors 144 

Elevation  and  Section  of  Finish 160 

Doors  and  Door  Finish 176 

Stairs,  Newels  and  Balusters 192 

Elevation  and  Details  of  Mantel 208 

Elevation  of  a  Book-case 224 

Kitchen  and  Student's  Desk 232 

Section  and  Plans  of  Window 240 

Cellar  Window  in  Stone  Wall 848 

Sections  of  Windows  in  Wood 256 


Architectural  Drawing  Self  Taught 

INTRODUCTION 

Before  entering  into  the  subject  on  which  this 
work  is  being  prepared,  the  editor  and  compiler 
would  like  to  say  a  few  words  to  the  reader,  in 
connection  therewith. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  title  of  this  work  is 
"Architectural  and  Builders'  Drawing  Self- 
Taught";  and  this  title  fairly  conveys  to  the 
intelligent  reader,  the  scope  of  the  volume,  as 
the  work  is  intended  solely  for  young  progressive 
carpenters  and  builders  who  are  not  going  to 
drag  out  a  tiresome  existence  by  remaining  at 
the  bottom  of  their  trades,  and  who  have  not 
had  an  opportunity  of  acquiring  a  knowledge  of 
architectural  drawing  or  the  use  of  drawing 
instruments.  Many  of  the  best  draftsmen  in  the 
United  States,  Canada,  and  Great  Britain,  came 
from  the  ranks  of  the  working  men;  men  who 
had  gained  the  most  of  their  knowledge  of  the 
laws  of  construction  and  exactness  in  the  work- 
shop, at  the  bench,  or  on  the  buildings  where 

ll 


12  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

they  were  employed;  and  I  may  say  that  it  is 
within  the  power  of  ninety  per  cent  of  workmen 
to  become  fairly  good  draftsmen,  by  their  own 
efforts,  and  the  aid  of  such  books  as  the  one  I 
have  now  prepared  for  this  purpose;  and  the 
young  man  who  has  by  his  own  efforts,  per- 
severance and  ability,  succeeded  in  being  able 
to  place  on  paper  or  board  with  pen  and  pencil,  a 
plain  elevation  of  a  door,  window,  house,  stone 
wall,  or  veranda,  drawn  to  scale,  and  so  made  as 
to  convey  to  his  fellow  workman  a  correct  idea 
of  what  is  intended,  that  man  has  achieved  a 
result  which  should — and  generally  does — 
advance  his  wages,  increase  his  importance,  and 
make  him  a  more  valuable  and  useful  citizen. 
It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  this  little  work 
alone,  even  though  thoroughly  digested,  will 
enable  the  reader  to  become  a  finished  drafts- 
man, nor  is  it  so  intended,  but  it  will  aid  him 
materially  in  acquiring  such  knowledge  as  will 
give  him  a  good  start  on  the  highway  to  success. 
Wherever  the  student  can  attain  access  to  a 
school  for  drawing,  there  he  should  at  once 
proceed,  for  a  few  hours  spent  over  a  drawing 
board  under  competent  supervision,  will  do  more 
towards  giving  him  an  insight  into  the  methods 
and   practice  of  good  draftsmanship   than   it   is 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  IS 

possible  to  obtain  by  many  days  of  book  study. 
Where  there  are  no  such  schools  available  the 
student  should  try  and  get  into  an  architect's 
office,  or  into  the  office  of  some  mechanical 
draftsman,  and  either  pay  for,  or  work  for,  a 
series  of  lessons  on  drawing,  but  when  none  of 
these  conditions  exist,  he  should  take  up  a  series 
of  studies  in  practical  geometry  in  connection 
with  drawing;  as  a  knowledge  of  geometry  as 
presented  in  either  "Modern  Carpentry  and 
Joinery",  or  other  works  published  in  this  series 
of  work-manuals,  by  Messrs.  Frederick  J.  Drake 
&Co. 

The  construction  of  geometrical  figures  is 
exceedingly  good  exercise  and  will  not  only 
give  the  reader  good  theoretical  knowledge,  but 
will  help  him  in  his  drawing  lessons  and  practice 
him  in  exactness. 

By  application  and  determination  "to  fight  it 
out  to  a  finish"  the  earnest  student  will  be  sure 
to  make  a  good — perhaps  a  first-class — drafts- 
man, for,  to  the  really  earnest  man,  nothing  is 
impossible  within  the  range  of  human 
accomplishments. 

I  have  referred  in  the  foregoing  to  "exactness." 
This  is  the  first  "necessity"  in  a  drawing  that  is 
intended  to  be  used  as  a  guide  for  actual  work. 


14  ARCHITFX'TURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

A  drawing  may  be  rough,  dirty  and  inartistically 
done,  but  if  it  be  complete  and  correct  it  serves 
its  purpose,  and  is  immeasurably  superior  for 
practical  uses  to  the  inexact  artistic  one,  which 
may  dazzle  with  its  shade  and  shadows  and 
fineness  of  execution,  but  leads  to  confusion  and 
failure  and  consequent  chagrin  and  loss. 

I  have  thought  it  necessary  to  inject  into  this 
little  work  a  few  remarks  and  a  few  illustrations 
on  Free  Hand  Drawing,  as  many  persons  are 
gifted  with  the  power  of  being  able  to  make  a 
fair  drawing  of  objects  on  sight,  and  it  was 
thought  that,  perhaps,  a  few  hints  in  this  direc- 
tion would  be  necessary  to  make  the  book 
complete,  as  these  hints  may  aid  those  who  have 
these  gifts,  and  stimulate  those  who  have  them 
not,  to  cultivate  the  art,  as  a  knowledge  of  it  is 
one  of  the  most  useful  aids  the  drawing  student 
can  possess. 

It  must  be  remembered  this  work  does  not 
pretend  to  lead  the  student  beyond  the  realm  of 
plain  practical  drawing,  such  as  the  everyday 
workman  will  find  useful  and  convenient,  when- 
ever he  wishes  to  convey  to  others  an  idea  of 
what  he  intends  to  erect,  or  to  lay  out  on  paper 
or  board  a  piece  of  work  he  is  about  to 
execute.      I    have    eschewed    perspective,    and 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT  15 

elaborate  drawings  of  any  kind,  but,  should  it 
be  thought  wise,  I  may  hereafter,  prepare  a 
work  for  this  series,  dealing  with  perspective 
and  a  higher  grade  of  work  than  is  herewith 
presented. 

SOMETHING   ABOUT    DRAWING  INSTRUMENTS 

In  all  kinds  of  geometrical,  architectural  and 
mechanical  drawing,  the  accuracy  of  the  work 
will  depend  much,  in  theory,  on  the  excellency 
of  the  drawing  instruments  used. 

Practically,  these  instruments  are  not  quite 
perfect,  and  any  carelessness  or  negligence  of 
the  draftsman  when  using  them,  may  render 
them  unfit  for  accuracy  of  operation.  Indeed, 
the  hand  and  eye  of  the  operator,  viewed  simply 
as  instruments,  for  executing  conceptions  of 
form,  are  vastly  superior  and  more  varied  than 
the  best  of  appliances  used  by  the  draftsman,  and 
well  directed  efforts  should,  and  will,  bring  out 
this  capacity  so  that,  other  things  being  equal,  he 
will  make  the  most  expert  and  elegant  drafts- 
man whose  eye  is  most  reliable  in  its  estimate 
of  form  and  size,  and  whose  free  hand  is  most 
skilled  in  expressing  these  elements  of  figure. 
Instruments,  however,  are  necessary,  and  a  little 
talk  on  the  subject  will  not  be  out  of  place,  and 
may  prove  of  practical  value  to  the  reader. 


1()  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


PLATE   i. 

This  plate  exhibits  some  eighteen  different 
sketches.  Xo.  i  shows  a  plain  method  of  laying 
out  a  room  having  sliding  doors  in  it.  No.  2 
shows  the  same  room  presented  on  another 
method.  Xo  3  exhibits  another  simple  plan  ot 
marking  off  the  same  room,  while  No.  4  shows 
the  walls  in  plain  black.  These  four  examples 
are  intended  to  convey  to  the  student  some  idea 
of  the  various  methods  of  illustrating.  Xo.  5 
shows  the  layout  of  a  porch,  with  an  angle  on 
one  corner.  Xo.  6  shows  the  plan  of  the  porch 
roof.  Xos.  7  and  8  show  plan  of  semi-octagon 
bay-windows,  and  roof  plan,  while  Xo.  9  shows 
the  roof  plan  for  a  pentagon  bay-window.  Xos. 
10  and  1 1  show  two  plans  of  stairs  that  are 
suggestive.  Nos.  12  and  13  exhibit  two  styles  of 
laying  out  a  bath  room.  Xo.  14  shows  several 
ways  of  laying  out  fireplaces,  while  15,  16  and  17 
show  portions  of  a  pantry  and  kitchen. 


S^S 


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I 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

t  1 

nim^L 

1 

PiaH  ffl^ 


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A 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING  SELF  TAUGHT      17 

Almost,  in  every  department  of  life  the  best 
results  can  only  be  obtained  by  the  skilful 
employment  of  the  best  means  available.  Some- 
times a  genius  accomplishes  supreme  results  with 
the  most  primitive  of  means,  but  it  is  not  for 
geniuses  this  work  is  prepared,  but  for  everyday 
sort  of  people,  people- who  do  not  expect  to 
build  houses  without  materials,  or  become 
draftsmen  without  long  and  careful  preparation; 
and  such  being  the  case  it  is  in  order  that  the 
reader  be  advised  to  purchase  the  best  instru- 
ments and  accessories  his  means  will  admit  of. 

"A  fine  workman  requires  fine  tools,"  and  no 
man  can  do  a  fine  piece  of  work  not  having  the 
proper  tools  wherewith  to  do  it,  so  no  man  can 
do  a  good  piece  of  drafting  without  having  the 
necessary  tools;  therefore,  it  will  not  be  out  of 
place  to  commence  with  a  description  of  the 
instruments  required,  and  the  manner  of  using 
them. 

The  first  thing  the  young  student  will  require, 
will  be  a  drawing  board.  This  may  be  made  at 
home,  but  should  be  true  on  its  face  and  the 
edges  should  be  exactly  at  right-angles  with 
each  other,  or  perfectly  square.  The  board  may 
be  made  in  size,  to  suit  requirements,  but  should 
never  be  less  than  12  by  17  inches.     Indeed,  it  is 


18 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF    TAUGHT 


better  to  have   two   or   three    boards   of    sizes 
varying  from  12x17  to  36x60  inches. 


They  may  be  clamped  on  the  ends  with  stuff 
about  1  %  inches  wide  and  the  thickness  of  the 
board,  or  they  maybe  held  together  with  battens 
either  screwed  on  to  the  underside  as  shown  at 


Fig.    2. 


Fig.  i,  or  dovetailed  into  the  board  across  the 
grain   as  shown    at    rig.  2.     At  Fig.  3  a  much 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT  1!) 

better  board  is  shown  and  one  I  can  recommend 
as  possessing  nearly  all  the  qualities  of  a  perfect 
board. 

A  glance  at  the  illus- 
tration will  explain  the 
good  qualities  of  this 
style  of  board.  The  wood 
used  should  be  carefully  ^Fig.  3. 

selected  pine  or  basswood 

with  hardwood  cross-bars  at  back.  To  pre- 
vent the  warping  of  the  wood,  the  board  is 
sawed  half  way  through  at  about  every  two 
inches,  and  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  to  con- 
tract and  expand,  the  cross  bars  are  not  glued 
on,  but  fastened  with  screws,  which  run  in  oblong 
metal  slots.  At  the  ends,  pieces  of  hardwood 
are  inlaid,  to  give  the  T-square  a  smooth  work- 
ing edge.  They  are  also  cut  at  every  few 
inches,  to  allow  for  contraction  and  expansion 
of  the  board. 

While  the  cheapest  boards  are  made  of  white 
pine  or  basswood,  it  doesn't  necessarily  follow 
that  boards  may  not  be  made  of  other  woods; 
cedar,  mahogany  and  straight  grained  walnut 
make  very  fine  boards  and  answei  very  well 
where  you  do  not  require  to  use  pins  for  securing 
the  paper  to  the  board.     When,  then,  hardwood 


20  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT 

boards  are  used,  it  is  as  well  to  employ  glue  or 
mucilage  in  fastening  paper  to  the  board. 

Drawing  paper  comes  in  rolls  of  indefinite 
lengths,  and  from  36  to  54  inches  wide,  and  in 
sheets  of  various  sizes.  It  is  made  in  different 
tints,  is  generally  very  tough,  and  is  chiefly  used 
for  details;  it  is  much  cheaper  than  Whatman's, 
and  for  many  purposes  answers  just  as  well. 
There  is  also  a  paper  comes  in  rolls  called 
"Cartridge  paper"  of  a  buff  color,  very  strong 
and  cheap,  and  admirably  suited  for  details  and 
like  work.  Tracing  cloth,  also,  comes  in  rolls, 
18,  30,  36,  and  42  inches  wide;  it  is  convenient 
and  durable,  and  may  be  folded  up  almost  any 
number  of  times  without  injury. 

Tracing  paper  is  made  of  different  qualities 
and  sizes;  it  is  rendered  transparent,  and 
qualified  to  receive  ink  lines  and  tinting  without 
spreading.  Like  tracing  cloth,  when  placed 
over  a  drawing  already  executed,  the  drawing  is 
distinctly  visible  through  the  paper,  and  may  be 
copied  or  traced  directly  by  the  ink  instruments; 
thus  an  accurate  copy  may  be  made  with  great 
expedition.  We  cannot  give  reliable  price 
quotations  of  these  papers,  as  they  vary  some- 
what, and  mav  be  different  prices  in  different 
localities. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


The  paper  should  be  fastened  to  the  board 
with  pins  or  thumb-tacks  similar  to  those 
exhibited  in  Fig.  4.  These  are  made  with  a 
broad  flat  head,  of  brass,  white  metal  * — jT^""' 
or  silver,  and  rounded  so  as  to  permit  I 
the  square  to  slide  easily  over  them,  lg"  4 
and  the  stem  should  be  of  steel  and  riveted  or 
screwed  into  the  head. 

Fig.  5  exhibits  several  styles  of  "thumb-tacks," 
all  of  which  are  well  enough  in  their  way. 
There  is  a 
number  of  other 
styles  of  tacks 
of  various  kinds 
besides  the  ones 
shown. 

When    the 


^. 


Fig.  5. 


young  student  gets  down  to  "real  work"  and 
makes  use  of  good  paper,  he  should  first 
damp  the  edges  of  the  paper,  then  glue  the 
edges  and  place  fairly  on  the  board,  holding  it 
in  place  with  pins  or  other  suitable  appliances, 
which  may  be  removed  when  the  work  is  dry 
and  ready  to  operate  upon.  This  method  of 
fastening  is  sufficient  where  no  shadowing  or 
coloring  is  to  be  applied,  and  if  the  sheet  is  not 
too   long   a  time   upon  the  board.     It  has   the 


>>  UtCHITECTUBAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

advantage,  too,  of  preserving  to  the  paper  its 
natural  quality  of  surface.  With  mounted  paper, 
there  is  no  other  proper  way  of  fastening.  For 
large,  colored,  or  elaborate  drawings,  however, 
a  damped  sheet  is  preferable,  and  where  the 
coloring  is  a  flat  tint,  damp  stretching  is  indis- 
pensable, as  the  partial  wetting  by  water  color 
causes  the  surface  to  buckle;  partial  wetting  of 
loose  paper  by  water  color  causes  the  surface  to 
buckle. 

Damp-stretching  is  performed  in  the  following 
manner:  lay  the  sheet  on  the  board,  with  the 
face  side  under,  and  have  the  thick  edges 
trimmed  from  the  paper;  draw  a  wet  sponge 
freely  and  rapidly  over  the  upper  side,  beginning 
at  the  center,  damping  the  entire  surface,  and 
allow  the  sheet  to  rest  for  a  few  minutes  till  it 
be  damped  through,  and  the  surface-water 
disappears.  Those  parts  which  appear  to  revive 
sooner  than  others,  should  be  retouched  with  the 
sponge.  The  damping  should  be  done  as  lightly 
as  possible,  as  the  sponge  always  deprives  the 
paper  of  more  or  less  of  its  sizing.  The  sheet  is 
now  turned  over  and  placed  fair  with  the  edges 
of  the  board— sufficiently  clear  of  the  working 
edges  to  permit  the  free  action  of  the  drawing- 
iquare.     The    square,   or  an   ordinary   straight- 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGH1 


23 


edge,  is  next  applied  to  the  paper,  and  set  a  little 

within  one  edge,  which  is  then  turned  up  over 

the  square  and  smeared  with  glue.     The  paper 

is  then  turned  down  and  pressed  on  the  board, 

after  which  it  is  rubbed  down  all  along  the  "lap" 

with  some  smooth  article.     The  same  process  is 

performed    on    the   other   edges   of  the   paper. 

The   w  hole    is 

then  left  to  dry, 

which,    when 

completed, 

leaves    the   sur- 

face    flat     and 

tense. 

It  is  not  likely 
the  ordinary 
workman  will 
want  to  color  his 
drawings,  there- 
fore he  will  find 

it  safer,  and  less  trouble,  to  simply  tack  his 
paper  on  the  board  with  the  thumb  tacks,  and 
then  make  his  drawings  first  in  pencil,  then  in 
ink,  but  I  have  thought  it  well  to  give  some  hint? 
regarding  the  manner  of  preparing  the  papers 
for  coloring.  Further  on,  I  will  have  more  to 
say  on  this  subject  and  on  the  subject  of  color. 


777777777 


Fig.  6. 


24 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 


Having  prepared  a  drawing  board,  the  next 
thing  will  be  to  provide  a  table  or  desk  to  rest 
the  board  on.  I  show  a  very  good  scheme  for 
this  purpose  in  sketch  Fig.  6,  and  which  can 
readily  be  made  by  any  workman  who  can  use 
tools.  This  should  be  fixed  in  some  place  where 
there  is  an  abundance  of  light  and  in  such  a 
position  that  the  light  will  fall  on  the  board  from 
the  left  side  as  shown  in  Fig.  7.     The  height  and 


Fig-  7. 

projection  of  the  table  or  desk  are  marked  in 
Fig.  6,  and  a  movable  block  of  about  3  inches 
square  is  shown  at  A,  which  can  be  moved  in 
such  a  fashion  that  the  angle  of  the  board  may 


ARCHITFXTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT 


Z5 


be  made  to  suit  the  operator.  This  block  must 
of  course  be  as  long  as  the  drawing  board. 

Fig.  7  shows  the  board  in  position  with  the 
paper  tacked  on,  and  the  proper  position  of  the 
hands  are  shown  as  they  should  appear  while 
making  the  drawing. 

The  next  thing  to  be  considered  is  the  T 
square.  This 
needs  but  little 
description,  a  s 
every  workman 
is  supposed  to  ^ 
know  what  this 
instrument  is;  it 
may,  however, 
be  noted  that 
T-squares  differ 
in  construction. 
In  the  common- 
est the  "blade", 
or  thin  portion, 
is    fixed    flush 

with  one  side  of  the  "butt",  or  "head",  as  at 
A,  Fig.  8.  In  other  forms  the  blade  is  fast- 
ened in  the  middle  of  the  butt,  B,  and  this  is 
the  preferable  form  for  large  squares;  others,  at 
C,  Fig.  8,  have  the  blade  above  the  level  of  the 


Fig.  8. 


26 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 


head,  to  permit  set-squares  to  go  over  it.  Very 
large  squares  have  a  couple  of  little  studs,  as 
shown  in  the  figure  B,  to  steady  them. 

French  curves,  L,  Fig.  9,  are  made  in  a  great 
variety  of   combinations.      They  are  extremely 

handy  for  draw- 
ing curves  not 
easily  struck  by 
the  compasses, 
and  also  for  ec- 
centric curves, 
which  the  com- 
passes are  not 
able  to  describe 
as  in  medieval 
mouldings  of 
some  forms.  In 
i  n  k  i  n  g  -  i  n  a 
curve  by  the  aid  of  one  of  these  appliances 
the  edges  must  be  turned  about  on  the  pencilled 
drawing  until  some  part  is  found  which 
corresponds,  when  the  edge  of  the  curve  will 
guide  the  drawing-pen.  There  are  a  great 
variety  of  these  curves  as  may  be  seen  at  Fig. 
10.  These  variable  or  irregular  curves  are  made 
of  thin  wood,  hard  rubber  or  celluloid,  and  are 
sold  for  a  few  cents  each. 


Fig.  9. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELI    TAUGHT 


27 


The  set    square   or    squares,   similar  to   those 
shown  at  Fig.  9,  C,  D,  K  and   B,  are  great  aids 


Fig.  10. 


to  drawing  as  they  may  be  employed  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  T-square,  for  lining  off  angles,  or 
laying  off  parallel  lines  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines  EG,  and  FH.     These  set  squares  are  made 


Fig.  11. 


to    suit    different    angles,  and    in    many    styles, 
as    will    be    seen    in    Fig.   11.     The    manner  of 


28 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SKLF   TAUGHT 


using  them  will  suggest  itself  as  the  work  pro- 
ceeds. 

T-squares  of  a  superior  kind  may  be  obtained 
from  any  dealer  in  mathematical  instruments 
for  from  $1.00  to  $6.00  each,  but  in  most  cases 
the  workman  can  make  his  own  squares,  as  well 
as  his  own  drawing  boards,  and  save  money  by 
the  operation.  The  squares  shown  at  Fig.  12 
are  of  a  superior  kind,  the  blades  and  one  edge 


Fig.  12. 


of  the  stocks  having  ebony  or  other  hard  wood 
glued  on  the  edges  to  prevent  them  from  wear- 
ing. The  lower  square  has  a  movable  stock, 
which  is  operated  by  a  thumb  screw,  thus 
enabling  the  draftsman  to  set  the  blade  to  any 
angle  desired.  The  working  of  this  will  be 
easily  understood  by  the  reader. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  29 

Another  accessory,  and  one  the  workman  can 
make  for  himself,  is  a  straight  edge — or  several 
of  them — which  may  be  made  of  hard-wood,  or 
it  may  be  made  of  good  clean  straight  grained 
soft  wood,  and  have  hardwood  edges  glued  on 
as  shown  in  Fig.  13.  Perhaps  it  would  be  well 
to  have  three  or  four  of  these  straight  edges  in 
different  lengths  and  widths,  say  one  16  in.  long. 


Fig.  13. 

one  30  in.  long,  and  another  40  in.  long.  The 
widths  may  be  2  in.,  2^2  in.,  and  3%  in. 
respectively.  They  should  not  be  more  than 
three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick,  but  would  be 
better  if  they  were  thinner. 

A  rule  or  scale  is  always  necessary,  for  all 
architectural  or  other  drawings  that  are  intended 
to  be  worked  from,  must  be  made  to  scale. 
Usually,  in  this  country,  scales  are  made  and 
marked  off  to  some  proportion  of  the  English 
foot,  when  intended  for  architectural  work. 
One  sixteenth   of    an   inch   may  represent   one 


30 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING   BELF   TAUGHT 


foot  or  one  yard,  as  the  case  may  be,  so  also  may 
one  eighth,  one  quarter,  or  one  half  of  an  inch 
represent  one  foot  or  one  yard,  just  as  the 
draftsman  determines.  One  eighth  of  an  inch  is 
the  most  used,  though  one  quarter  of  an  inch  is 


Fig.  14. 

the  scale  generally  employed.  For  workmen's  use 
three  quarters  of  an  inch  scale  is  handy,  as  this 
makes  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch  represent  one 
inch  of  the  actual  work,  which  is  quite  con- 
venient in  a  working  drawing. 

Scales  may  be  had  flat  or  triangular,  and  in 
boxwood,  ivory  or   hard    rubber,  and  one   foot 


Fig.  15- 

long.  The  flat  scales  are  very  handy,  but  are 
sometimes  confusing,  because  often  two  or  more 
scales  are  laid  off  on  one  edge.  Perhaps  the 
handiest  scale  for  actual  use,  is  the  triangular 
one,  which  is  similar  to  Fig.  14.     There  are  six 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


31 


edges  on  this  scale,  each  edge  having  a  different 
marking  or  scale.  The  flat  scale  is  shown  at 
Fig.  15.  This  scale  is  12  inches  long,  with  16 
scales,  as  follows:  yk,  A,  %,  }£,  }4,  %,  }i,  %,  1, 
1%,  \x/z,  i^A,  2,  2%,  2l/2,  and  3  inches  to  the  foot, 
the  first  division  of 
each  scale  subdi- 
vided in  12  parts, 
each. 

Besides  these 
there  are  many 
other  kinds  of 
scales  made  use  of 
by  Architects,  En- 
gineers, and  Sur- 
veyors, but  these 
shown  and  de- 
scribed, will  suffice 
for  the  purpose 
for  which  this  book  is  prepared,  as  it  is  not 
intended  to  embody  in  this  work  other  than  the 
simplest  methods  of  plain  architectural  work, 
and  such  as  can  be  executed  with  the  simplest 
kind  of  instruments. 

There  is  a  number  of  other  accessories  used 
in  drawing  besides  these  mentioned,  that  are 
not  placed  in  a  regular  box  or  case  of  instru- 


Fiy.   it). 


32  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


PLATE  2. 

Following  up  the  ideas  presented  in  Plate  i,  I 
give  herewith  the  plans  for  a  small  cottage  and 
show  the  cellar  plan,  first  floor  plan  and  chamber 
plan.  This  is  drawn  to  a  scale  of  jV  of  an  inch 
to  the  foot,  but  I  would  advise  the  student  to 
double  the  size,  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
original  drawings  of  these  examples  is  the  scale 
to  which  they  are  made,  namely  f\  of  an  inch  to 
the  foot.  Every  item  necessary  for  a  house  of 
this  description  is  shown  on  these  plans. 


mnBEiBB^Bnmism 


i 


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msannmnnnmEsm^zm  \ 


WV//////////M////////////W& 


\ 

It        * 

L 


♦•i  — 


20 


^ou^o^TioK 


PLftTE.2. 


^ 


_sr  f=HJ>0(^ 


cSfcCO^o  f^oof^ 


I 


."-- : 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  M,1} 

ments,  such  as  splines,  ellipsographs,  and  beam- 
compasses;  the  latter  being  designed  for 
drawing  circles  of  large  diameter,  and  are  so 
made  that  the  points  can  be  moved  to  the 
desired  distance  apart.  One  steel  point  may  be 
removed  and  a  pencil  or  inking  pen  inserted.  Set 
screws  hold  the  heads  in  position  on  the  sliding 
bar  A,  Fig.  16.  This  bar  may  be  of  wood,  or  of 
metal,  preferably  the  former,  and  it  may  be  of 
any  desired  length. 


Fig.  17. 

Splines  are  flexible  strips  of  wood  or  metal, 
and  are  used  for  forming  curves — regular  or 
variable— and  are  held  in  position  by  a  peculiar 
attachment  which  serves  to  hold  the  curve  in 
position  as  shown  at  S  S  S,  Fig.  17.  These 
attachments  are  made  of  lead. 

The  ellipsograph  is  a  costly  instrument  and 
one  which  the  ordinary  workman  would  seldom 
require;  besides,  there  are  a  number  of  ways  by 
which  an  ellipse  may  be  drawn,  and  figures 
approaching  an  ellipse,  so  I  would    not  advise 


34 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


the  young  draftsman  to  purchase  the  more 
expensive  one  until  his  means  or  business 
warranted  it.     I  give  an  illustration,  however,  of 


Fig.  1 8. 


Browne's  patent  ellipsograph  in  order  to  acquaint 
my  readers  with  the  style  of  instrument.  This 
is  an  excellent  device,  and  can  be  adjusted  to 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  35 

form  ellipses  or  ovals  of  all  kinds  within  the 
limits  of  the  instrument.  It  is  shown  with  some 
of  the  attachments  at  Fig.  18.  The  price  of  this 
device  varies  from  $9.00  to  $14.00.  A  very 
good  one  may  be  obtained  for  about  $12.00. 

Apart  from  the  conventional  box  of  instru- 
ments, the  appliances  now  described  will  be 
about  all  the  young  workman  will  require 
unless,  of  course,  he  intends  to  study  for  an 
architect  or  mechanical  engineer,  when,  of 
course,  he  will  have  passed  beyond  the  limits  of 
this  work  which  is  intended  only  for  such  work- 
men as  have  no  other  opportunities  of  learning 
the  rudiments  of  draftsmanship. 

It  will  be  in  order  now  to  say  something  about 
the  instruments  proper  the  beginner  will  require, 
so  I  will,  as  briefly  as  possible,  describe  the 
instruments,  explain  their  uses,  and  offer  a  few 
suggestions  as  to  their  care  and  management. 

A    BOX    OF    INSTRUMENTS 

It  is  not  my  province  to  recommend  any 
particular  make  of  instruments  for,  so  far  as  I 
am  aware  any  of,  the  ordinary  makes — that  are 
not  intended  for  school  children — will  serve  the 
purpose  of  learning  their  use,  and  afterwards, 
the  student,  when  advanced  sufficiently,  a  more 


36 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF    TAUGHT 


costly  and  more  complete  set  may  be  obtained  if 
found  necessary.  While,  of  course,  purchasing 
drawing  instruments  is  like  purchasing  tools, 
that  is,  it  is  always  better  to  buy  the  very  best 
that  can  be  bought,  and  I  may  say  that  the  best 
may  be  obtained  in  single  pieces  or  in  boxes 
containing  only  three  or  four  pieces.  However, 
perhaps,  it  is  best  in  our  case  to  get  a  set  similar 
to  the  case  shown  at  Fig.  19.     This  is  a  Morocco 

case  which  con- 
tains two  divid- 
ers,pen  and  pen- 
cil points,  draw- 
ing pen,  and  a 
six  inch  flat 
scale.  This  case 
can  be  bought 
for  about  $4.00, 
for  which  sum  instruments  ought  to  be  fairly  good ; 
if,  however,  the  student  can  afford  it,  and  feels 
that  he  had  better  purchase  a  set  of  instruments 
that  will  meet  all  his  needs,  present  and  future, 
why  then  he  had  better  invest  in  a  better  quality 
of  goods,  and  purchase  a  case  containing  a 
greater  number  of  instruments  and  of  a  finer 
grade,  such  as  I  show  at  Fig.  20,  which  may  be 
obtained  for  about  $20.00  or  $25.00.     This  case 


Fig.  19- 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT  37 

contains,  besides  the  box,  one  5^  in.  dividers, 
with  pen,  pencil  and  needle  points,  lengthening 
bar;  3^  in.  dividers,  with  pen,  pencil  and  needle 
points;    5    in.   plain   dividers;    5   in.    hair  spring 


Fig.  20. 

dividers;  spring  bow  dividers,  pen  and  pencil, 
needle  points,  ivory  handle;  \Yi  in.  ivory  handle 
hinged  drawing  pen,  needle  point;  $l/2  in.  ivory 
handle  hinged  drawing  pen,  needle  point; 
German  silver  protractor,  ebony  rule  and  scale. 


38 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 


These  instruments  are  made  of  fine  German 
silver  with  superior  steel   points. 


m 


Fig.  21. 

Fine  Swiss  made  instruments  cost   more  than 
German  ones,  as  some  of  the  Swiss  cases  run  up 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT  39 

to  $150.00  and  $175.00.  English  and  American 
made  instruments  are  high  priced,  but  as  a  rule 
are  more  substantial  and  in  the  end  give  bet- 
ter satisfaction  than  other  makes. 

The  first  things  to  be  considered  in  a  set  of 
instruments  are  the  compasses.  These  generally 
include  dividers  and  pen  and  pencil  attach- 
ments. It  is  not  necessary  to  illustrate  or  de- 
scribe the  form  of  these  instruments,  as  they 
may  be  seen  in  the  case  as  shown  in  Fig.  20, 
and  the  interchangeable  parts  will  easily  find 
the  place  they  are  intended  for  when  required 
for  use;  so  I  will  not  dwell  on  the  subject  of  com- 
passes longer. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  article  in  the  case 
to  the  young  student  is  the  pen,  and  I  will  there- 
fore devote  more  space  to  a  description  of  it 
than  I  will  to  any  other  of  the  instruments,  as  a 
proper  knowledge  of  its  use  and  care  will  be  of 
great  assistance  in  the  work  before  us. 

A    DRAWING    PEN 

This  is  the  most  useful  and  the  most  used 
instrument  in  the  case.  Fig.  21,  which  is  taken 
from  Keuffel  and  Esser  Co.'s  catalogue,  shows  a 
variety  of  pens  of  the  very  best  make,  pens  that 
are  suited  for  any  kind  of  line  drawings  in  ink. 


40  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

The  prices  of  these,  with  ivory  handles,  range 
from  $1.40  to  $2.50  each,  and  they  are  warranted 
to  be  the  best  of  their  kind. 

A  few  words  as  to  the  use  and  care  of  this 
instrument  may  not  be  out  of  place  at  this 
juncture,  as  it  is  important  the  instrument  should 
be  well  understood  by  the  student  so  that  he 
may  the  better  be  able  to  make  the  best  of  it. 
The  man  who  devotes  himself  exclusively  to  any 
particular  vocation,  day  after  day,  for  several 
years,  acquires  an  intimate  knowledge  of  its 
details  that  is  not  easily  imparted  to  the  novice 
through  the  medium  of  pen  and  ink,  and  often 
when  it  is  attempted,  the  finer  details  which  con- 
tribute so  much  to  success  are  passed  over  lightly 
or  are  omitted  altogether.  "In  the  course  of  his 
experience  he  acquires  ways  and  means  of 
prosecuting  his  work,  if  he  be  intelligent  and 
progressive,  which  makes  its  execution  easy  and 
places  him  on  the  list  of  "skilled  operators." 

The  art  of  mechanical  drawing  contains  a  few 
of  those  mysteries  which,  if  published  at  all,  have 
not  been  given  a  very  wide  circulation. 

Our  scientific  libraries  and  dealers  in  technical 
works  are  copiously  supplied  with  books  on 
mechanical  drawing,  in  any  of  which  may  be 
found    the    illustrations    of  tools,   curves,    inks, 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT  41 

colors,  etc.,  carefully  reproduced  from  the 
catalogues  of  dealers,  but  the  accompanying 
description  does  not  always  give  a  clear  idea  of 
the  relative  merits  of  the  different  tools  shown, 
how  they  should  be  selected,  handled,  and  kept 
in  repair,  and,  while  it  is  not  intended  in  this 
work  to  describe  the  methods  of  caring  for  and 
repairing  all  the  instruments  a  box  contains,  it 
is  necessary  the  pen  should  have  more  than  a 
passing  notice. 

It  is  a  custom  with  many  makers  of  first-class 
instruments  to  hinge  one  jaw  of  the  ruling  pen 
to  the  little  separating  block  above  the  adjusting 
screw,  so  that  it  may  be  opened  after  the  adjust- 
ing screw  is  removed.  In  a  pen  of  this  kind  the 
joint  should  be  very  snug,  as  the  least  amount  of 
play  will  allow  the  point  of  one  jaw  to  slip  ahead 
of  the  other,  which  would  destroy  the  efficiency 
of  the  pen.  In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  this 
joint  is  altogether  unnecessary.  It  increases  the 
first  cost  as  well  as  complicates  the  instrument, 
and  if  used  often,  will  get  out  of  order,  even 
with  the  very  best  workmanship.  If  used 
properly  the  points  need  never  be  separated 
further  than  the  adjusting  screw  will  permit. 
Many  draftsmen  have  the  hinge  joint  brazed  or 
soldered  so  as  to   fix   the   movable  jaw  to  the 


42  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 

separating  block  and  make  it  permanent.  The 
points  of  a  pen  should  never  be  separated  for 
sharpening,  which  is  the  only  purpose  for 
which  the  hinge  is  made.  When  the  point 
has  become  dull  from  use  it  will  be  found 
with  a  shape  similar  to  Fig.  22.  To  restore 
it  to  the  proper  form  the  jaws  should  be 
closed  by  the  adjusting  screw,  so  that  the 
points  press  gently  against  each  other; 
then  with  a  fine  oilstone  worked  with  a 
circular  motion  on  the  high  corners  it 
should  be  ground  to  a  shape  similar  to 
Fig.  23.  The  point  will  then  be  blunt,  but 
will  have  the  proper  working  when  the 
sides  are  reduced,  which  should  be  care- 
fully done  by  laying  the  side  of  the  pen 
on  the  stone  at  an  angle  with  its  surface 
that  will  allow  the  metal  to  be  ground  in 
^~^\  a  straight  line  to  a  distance  of  about  one 
quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  point.  The 
jaws  should  be  opened  frequently  as  the 
work  progresses  and  the  points  examined 
to  avoid  grinding  through  the  point  of 
one  jaw  into  that  of  the  other.  The 
sides  are  to  be  reduced  till  the  points  of  each 
jaw  are  equal  and  just  fine  enough  to  slide 
smoothly  over  the  paper  without    producing  a 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  4H 

cutting  or  scratching  sensation.  When  the 
points  are  not  sharp  enough  to  make  a  clean 
fine  line  the  blunt  part  is  easily  visible  with  the 
naked  eye,  but  when  it  is  sufficiently  re- 
duced it  is  hardly  possible  to  see  it.  The 
shape  of  the  curves  in  the  sides,  or  jaws, 
of  a  pen  is  also  an  important  feature.  If 
the  pen  is  too  open  near  the  point  on 
account  of  the  jaws  being  too  much  curved, 
as  in  Fig.  24,  it  will  leave  too  much 
space  for  ink,  causing  it  to  dry  quickly  or 
to  fall  out  in  using.  Fig.  25  shows  about 
the  proper  amount   of  curve  in  the  jaws 

Fig.  24. 

to  give  sufficient   ink  space. 

Wooden  handles,  though  not  quite  as 
elegant  as  bone,  are  preferable  as  they 
are  not  liable  to  break  when  accidentally 
swept  off  the  drawing-board — an  accident 
that  destroys  nine-tenths  of  the  bone 
handles. 

For  spring  bow  pens  and  pencil  com- 
passes it  is  advisable  to  have  on  the 
adjusting  screw,  when  the  pen  or  pencil 
is  set  to  draw  its  largest  circle.     With  a 

Fig.  25. 

pen  that  is  not  too  strong  in  the  springs 

an    experienced  draftsman    will    never    change 

his  centers  to  draw  a  shade  line  on  one  side  of 


44  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT 

the  circle,  as  this  may  be  easily  accomplished 
by  springing  the  pen  gently  toward  the  side 
to  be  shaded,  as  he  continues  the  movement 
of  drawing  the  circle.  The  pivot,  or  needle 
point,  should  always  be  adjustable.  When  it  is 
made  solid  with  the  leg  of  the  instrument  it  is 
generally  shaped  like  the  point  of  a  sewing 
needle,  and  will  pierce  a  large  hole  through  the 
paper  or  tracing  cloth  with  the  slightest  pressure 
if  used  several  times  in  the  same  center;  and 
should  a  small  piece  be  broken  off  the  point,  the 
pen  will  be  useless  unless  a  similar  length  be 
ground  off  the  nibs  of  the  pen. 

A  very  common  source  of  annoyance  in  nearly 
all  bow  pens  and  pencil  compasses  is  found  in 
the  eye  or  socket  provided  for  the  pencil.  In 
many  cases  it  is  found  too  large  to  hold  the 
ordinary  naked  lead,  and  too  small  for  those 
covered  with  wood.  Frequently  draftsmen  are 
obliged  to  overcome  this  difficulty  by  the  clumsy 
makeshift  of  reducing  the  wood  till  it  fits  the 
socket. 

Sometimes  a  small  bushing  is  provided  with 
the  compass,  that  will  fit  in  the  eye  and  hold  the 
lead.  This  is  unsatisfactory,  as  the  pencil  cannot 
be  readily  adjusted  as  the  point  wears  away. 
The  most  effective  treatment  an  instrument  of 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  45 

this  kind  can  have  is  to  file  away  the  metal  in 
the  parting  or  "split"  of  the  socket  and  close  in 
its  sides  so  as  to  reduce  the  eye  sufficiently  to 
grasp  the  hexagon  lead  of  a  6H  pencil;  this 
makes  the  pencil-holder  very  convenient  as  well 
as  economical,  the  butts  of  worn  pencils  may  be 
stripped  of  their  wood  and  the  leads  used  in  the 
compasses. 

So  much  for  the  pen  in  its  various  forms;  and 
now  a  few  words  concerning  some  of  the  other 
instruments.  Among  these  may  be  found  some 
possessing  various  degrees  of  usefulness,  and 
others  having  no  merit  whatever.  Some  of  the 
devices  that  have  been  invented  for  making 
broken  or  dotted  lines  maybe  classed  among  the 
latter.  The  proportional  compasses  or  dividers 
is  a  very  good  tool  to  have  in  stock,  but  it  should 
never  be  used  for  transferring  drawings  from 
one  scale  to  another  when  accuracy  is  required; 
not  only  is  the  instrument  liable  to  be  in  error, 
but  if  there  should  be  any  mistakes  in  measure- 
ment in  the  original  drawing  they  will  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  new  in  a  greater  degree. 

A  much  more  effective  and  convenient  pointer 
than  that  usually  found  in  sets  of  instruments 
may  be  made  on  the  one  end  of  a  6H  pencil  by 
reducing  it  to  a  fine  point.     The  dot  or  point  left 


46  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT 

by  it,  indicating  the  dimension,  is  always  easily 
found,  and,  as  the  other  end  of  the  pencil  may 
be  made  "chisel  shaped"  or  flat  for  drawing 
lines,  the  operation  of  laying  off  dimensions  and 
drawing  the  lines  may  be  carried  on  without 
changing  tools  or  losing  time.  For  sharpening 
pencils,  it  is  very  convenient  to  have  a  fine  file, 
attached  by  a  string  to  the  under  side  of  the 
drawing  board,  or  what  is  still  better,  as  the  file 
very  soon  gets  dull,  a  piece  of  wood  made  about 
the  shape  of  a  small  flat  file  with  a  piece  of 
emery  cloth  glued  to  each  side.  In  using,  the 
pencil  should  be  rubbed  on  the  emery. 

The  boxwood  scale  with  triangular  section, 
same  as  shown  at  Fig.  14,  has  served  its  purpose 
well,  but  it,  too,  has  its  weak  points.  The 
requirements  of  a  good  scale  are  that  the 
graduations  and  figures  shall  be  plain  and 
indelible,  that  it  be  perfectly  straight  and  the 
edges  sharp,  so  that  the  division  lines  may  be 
brought  close  to  the  paper.  The  boxwood  scale 
does  not  possess  the  first  of  these  features  as 
the  lines  will  be  often  dimmed  or  partially 
obliterated  with  two  or  three  years'  use. 

Some  draftsmen  have  a  habit  of  taking  off 
dimensions  by  placing  one  leg  of  the  dividers  on 
any  particular  division  and  extending  the  other 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  47 

to  the  distance  required.  When  this  is  done 
with  a  boxwood  scale  its  usefulness  is  limited  to 
a  very  short  time.  The  grain  of  the  wood  must 
be  straight,  or  it  will  be  apt  to  warp  or  spring. 
Some  excellent  scales  are  made  of  hardened 
steel,  by  a  firm  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  which  seem 
to  me  to  be  as  near  perfection  as  possible. 
Draftsmen  as  a  rule,  however,  object  to  making 
use  of  steel  scales,  and  they  have  not  come  into 
general  use;  and  for  this  reason,  these  scales,  we 
are  informed,  cannot  be  obtained  unless  specially 
ordered  at  the  factory. 

Every  metallic  instrument  the  draftsman  uses 
should,  when  possible,  be  nickel-plated.  There 
is  nothing  contributes  so  much  to  their  pres- 
ervation, no  amount  of  careful  polishing  and 
wiping  will  so  effectually  prevent  rusting  and 
discoloring,  and  nothing  improves  their  appear- 
ance so  much  or  makes  them  so  agreeable  to 
handle.  The  cost  of  plating  is  insignificant 
compared  with  the  benefit  derived,  as  the 
average  cost  of  plating  would  not  exceed  ten 
cents  for  each  tool  or  instrument. 

In  selecting  triangles  it  is  essential  to  have 
them  of  a  material  that  will  not  change  shape 
with  each  atmospheric  disturbance.  For  a 
number  of  reasons  hard  rubber  is  the  best  that 


48      ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING  SELF  TAUGHT 


PLATE   3. 

On  this  Plate  I  show  the  side  frame  of  the  small 
cottage  with  all  the  openings  for  windows,  also 
two  sections  of  the  framework,  with  the  heights 
marked  on  for  the  different  stories  and  sizes  of 
timbers.  The  stonework  and  cellar  windows  are 
shown. 


- 


+$K*^zd 


Plate.3. 


■ 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  4!) 

has  been  offered  to  the  trade.  It  is  unchange- 
able, under  ordinary  conditions,  and  may  be 
made  into  angles  from  tV  to  A  of  an  inch  thick, 
which  is  about  right  for  handiness  and  strength. 
There  are  very  few  woods  that  are  adapted  to 
this  purpose,  because  of  their  liability  to  warp 
and  twist,  and  generally  they  have  to  be  made 
too  thick  for  convenient  use.  The  same  rule 
holds  good  in  the  selection  of  a  T-square;  the 
blade  should  be  as  stiff  as  possible  and  the  edges 
not  more  than  %  of  an  inch  thick;  when  the 
edges  are  thicker  it  is  difficult  to  draw  long 
parallel  lines,  particularly  with  the  pen,  as  the 
point  of  contact  between  the  pen  and  the  blade 
of  square  is  on  the  upper  corner,  while  the 
position  of  the  point,  when  the  pen  is  held 
vertically,  must  be  the  same  distance  from  the 
lower  corner  of  the  edge  of  the  blade  on  account 
of  the  angle  formed  between  the  side  of  the  pen 
and  the  edge  of  the  blade.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  not  advisable  to  have  the  edge  less  than  tV 
of  an  inch  thick;  this  would  bring  the  point  of 
contact  too  close  to  the  point  of  the  pen  and 
would  render  it  liable  to  smear  the  ink.  An 
excellent  T-square  patented  some  time  ago  has 
a  thin  piece  of  brass  plate  with  a  knife-edge 
inserted  in  the  working  edge  of  the  blade.     This 


50  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

does  very  well  when  only  a  pencil  is  used,  but  a 
pen  cannot  be  worked  successfully  against  so 
thin  an  edge.  A  blade  made  of  two  different 
kinds  of  wood  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  12, 
such  as  a  mahogany  center  and  ebony  edges, 
while  being  excellent  in  their  way,  are  liable  to 
warp  and  "buckle"  and  require  watching. 
Squares  with  swivel  butts  are  very  convenient 
for  certain  kinds  of  work,  but  for  general  pur- 
poses and  for  such  students  as  this  book  is 
intended,  the  swivel  stock  had  better  be 
eschewed.  It  is  much  more  convenient  to  have 
the  blade  secured  to  the  stock  as  shown  at  A 
and  C,  Fig.  8,  than  to  have  it  dovetailed  or 
mortised  into  the  stock  as  shown  at  B,  Fig.  8. 
By  this  means  the  upper  surface  of  the  stock  is 
on  the  same  level  as  the  drawing-board  and 
does  not  interfere  with  the  angles  or  scales 
when  working  near  it. 

Perhaps  the  most  troublesome  appendage  to  a 
draftsman's  outfit  is  found  in  the  many  forms  of 
porcelain  ink  saucers  and  "piles."  For  holding 
and  mixing  soft  colors  the  pile  of  saucers  does 
very  well,  but  it  takes  a  long  time  to  rub  ink  by 
this  method  before  a  good  black  ink  is  produced 
as  the  smooth  bottom  of  these  dishes  does  not 
abrade    the    stick    of    ink    rapidly.     There    are 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    BELF   TAUGHT 


51 


several  preparations  of  liquid  ink  that  may  be 
purchased,  but  they  lack  that  solid  black  body 
in  fine'lines  that  is  so  necessary  for  drawings  or 
tracings  that  have  to  be  copied 
by  the  blue  printing  process.  Pre- 
pared liquid  ink  requires  a  longer 
time  to  dry  and  is  more  liable  to 
smear  than  ink  made  fresh  from 
the  stick.  There  is  an  ink  saucer 
made  by  a  firm  in  New  York  City 
that  seems  to  meet  all  require- 
ments. It  is  simply  a  slab  of  slate 
about  four  inches  square  and  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  having  a 
cup  or  saucer  shaped  cavity  for 
holding  the  ink  turned  in  its  cen- 
ter, and  covered  over  with  a  piece 
of  plate  glass.  A  good  black  ink 
may  be  mixed  in  this  saucer  in  a 
few  minutes  by  the  grinding  action 
of  the  slate  on  the  stick  when 
being  rubbed.  While  it  is  quite 
necessary  to  have  the  ink  with  some 
"body"  in  it,  it  is  not  best  to  make  it  too  thick, 
as  it  will  not  flow  well  then,  and  will  be  apt  to 
dry  too  quickly  and  clog  up  the  pen. 

When  the  ink  is  ready  to  use,  a  portion  of  it 


52 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


ma>'  be  inserted  between  the  nibs  of  the  pen 
until  there  is  about  as  much  ink  in  the  pen  as 
shown  by  the  shaded  part  in  Fig.  26,  where  two 
pens  are  shown,  one  charged  and  one  empty. 
The   ink   may  be  put  in   the  pen  by  the  aid  of  a 


Fig.  27. 

camel  hair  or  sable  brush,  such  as  shown  in  Fig. 

27,  which  is  full  size.  Clean  off  all  superfluous 
ink  from  the  outside  of  the 
nibs  of  the  pen  with  a  piece 
of  chamois  leather  or  a  clean 
linen  cloth,  and  you  are 
ready  for  work.  The  pen 
may  be  filled  by  another 
method  which  is  often 
adopted  by  draftsmen,  as 
follows:  Take  the  pen  and 
open  it,  say,  about  a  six- 
teenth of  an  inch,  clean  the 
nibs  well  with  chamois,  then 
close  the  pen  with  the  screw 
until    the    light    just    shows 

between  the  nibs,  then  breathe  gently  between 

the  nibs  and  dip  them  carefully  into  the  ink,  just 


Fig.  28. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  ."J.'i 

touching  the  surface  of  the  liquid,  and  the  ink 
will  run  up  between  the  nibs  by  attraction  of  the 
moisture  caused  by  the  breath  on  the  inside  of 
the  nibs. 

We  suppose  the  paper  to  be  stretched  on  the 
drawing  board,  and  either  held  in  place  by  being 
pasted  or  by  thumb  tacks,  such  as  shown  in  Figs. 
4  and  5.  When  all  is  ready,  hold  the  pen  as 
shown   in    Fig.   28,  and  carefully  ink  in   all   the 


Fig.  29. 

horizontal  lines,  both  full  and  dotted,  correcting 
where  possible  any  slight  irregularities  that  may 
have  been  made  in  pencilling.  In  drawing  the 
graduated  lines,  Fig.  29,  begin  with  the  thinnest, 
then  with  the  middle  finger,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
28,  turn  the  screw  of  the  pen  back,  say,  about  a 
quarter  of  a  revolution  for  each  of  the  others, 
the  last  opening  being  about  the  right  thickness 
for  the  border  line.  As  the  border  line  takes 
longer  to  dry  it  is  very  easy  to  smear,  but  of 
course  this  may  be  avoided  by  letting  the  ink 
dry  while  preparing  the  ink-leg  for  the  com- 
passes.    It   is  well   to   practice    this   method    of 


54 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


drawing  lines  a  number  of  times  until  a  certain 
amount  of  perfection  is  attained. 

In    drawing   circles,   care   must   be    taken    in 
holding  the  compasses  in  order  to  get  an  even 


Fig.  30.  Fig.  31. 

thickness  of  lines,  and  the  pen  should  always 
stand  vertically  over  the  work,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
30.  When  a  number  of  circles  drawn  from  a 
common  center  is  necessary,  as  shown  in  Fig.  31, 
be  sure  to  draw  the  outside,  or  the  one  having 


Fig.  32. 

the  greatest  radius,  first,  when  the  other  circles 
may  follow  in  regular  order.  The  sharp  curves 
as  shown  in  Fig.  31  are  always  the  most  difficult 
to  draw  correctly,  while  the  flat  curves,  or 
curves  with  greater  radius,  are,  within  certain 
limits,  much  easier  to  describe.  The  curves 
shown  at  Fig.  32  are  flat  ones,  and  well  within 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


55 


the  range  of  the  ordinary  compass.  The  inner 
curve  is  "dotted"  and  to  form  this  without  a 
clotting  pen,  with  any  degree  of  regularity, 
requires  considerable  care  and  practice,  but  it  is 
much  better  to  make  all  dotted  lines  with  the 
ordinary  pen,  than  to  make  use  of  a  dotting  pen, 
which  to  a  new  beginner  is  generally  a  source  of 


Fig-  33- 


Fig.  34- 


Fig.  35- 


trouble  and  disappointment.  The  examples  of 
circles  shown  at  Figs.  33,  34  and  35  offer  good 
practice  in  curve  drawing  with  the  compasses. 
Before  drawing  them,  however,  it  will  be  best  to 
draw  a  pair  of  center  lines  for  each  circle,  cutting 
each  other  at  right  angles  in  the  center,  and  it 
is  a  good  rule  never  to  draw  a  circle  under  any 
circumstances  without  having  two  center  lines  to 
mark  its  proper  situation.  In  the  first  circle, 
Fig,  33,  mark  off  points  one  quarter  of  an  inch 
apart  along  one  of  the  diameters  from  the 
circumference  to  the  center,  and  then  describe 
the  concentric  circles  with  the  compasses,  taking 


56  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT 

care  not  to  bore  a  large  hole  through  the  paper 
■  with  the  point.  The  compasses,  if  properly 
sharpened,  should  barely  penetrate  the  paper 
and  leave  no  impression  on  the  board. 

To  fill  up  the  middle  circle,  Fig.  34,  set  the 
compasses  to  the  radius,  and  then,  putting  the 
point  at  the  intersection  of  one  of  the  center 
lines  with  the  circumference,  mark  across  the 
circumference  on  each  side;  do  the  same  at  each 
intersection  of  the  center  line  with  circumference, 
and  it  will  be  found  that  the  circumference  is 
then  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts.  Now 
join  each  opposite  joint  by  a  line  passing 
through  the  center  and  the  figure  will  be 
complete. 

The  last  figure  to  be  drawn,  Fig.  35,  is  the 
most  difficult,  but  has  the  best  effect,  so  it  is 
worth  taking  some  pains  over.  Draw  the  two 
center  lines,  put  in  the  large  circles  and  divide 
the  horizontal  diameter  into  %  in.  spaces.  Take 
the  small  compass,  set  it  to  )i  in.  radius,  and 
then  put  in  the  smallest  semicircle  on  each  side. 
Then  set  it  to  Yz  in.  radius,  and  put  in  the  next 
semicircle;  then  to  %  in.  radius  for  the  next  two 
semicircles,  which  should  exactly  meet  at  the 
center.  Xow  to  1  in.  radius,  and,  lastly  to  1%  in. 
radius,    checking    the    curves    before    actually 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


.0? 


drawing  them,  by  seeing  how  the}-  fit  with  those 
already  drawn. 

Here  is  an  example,  Fig.  36,  made  up 
altogether  with  curved  lines  and  which  offers 
good  practice.  This  re- 
quires accurate  division 
and  correct  draftsman- 
ship. 

A  few  practical  exam- 
ples of  the  use  of  curves 
are  shown  in  the  follow- 


ing 


\7 


figures:         Fig. 
shows  a  scheme  by  which 
an  ornament  may  be  constructed  where  all  the 


j. 

V  A    U 


Fig.    37- 


58 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT 


curves  are  drawn  with  one  radius.  The  manner 
of  getting  the  centers  is  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines.  Figs.  38  and  39  exhibit  another  combina- 
tion of  curves  which  is  easy  to  draw.  To  make 
Fig.  39  is  perhaps  the  easiest  of  them  all,  as  it 
is  formed  of  curves  drawn  with  one  point  of  the 


Fig.   38. 


compass  resting  on  one  corner  of  each  of  the 
smaller  squares  which  are  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines. 

The  three  examples  shown  in  Figs.  40,41,  and 
42  are  a  little  more  difficult  to  draw  than  the 
previous  ones.  Fig.  40  may  be  termed  a  trefoil 
ornament,  as  the   central    divisions  are    drawn 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    BELF  TAUGHT 


59 


from  the  three  points  of  an  equilateral  triangle, 
which   is  shown  by  the  dotted  lines.     This  style 


of  an  ornament 
is  in  frequent 
use  in  church 
work  as  the  tri- 
angle is  sup- 
posed  to  be 
symbolic  of  the 
Trinity.  The 
student  should 
copy  this  often 
enough  so  that 


Fig.  40. 


00  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

he     can    draw    or    describe     it     from    memory 
alone. 

Fig.  41  is  simple  enough  when   the  principle  is 
understood.     The  circles  inside  are  drawn  from 


Fig.  41. 

six  centers,  or  from  the  six  points  of  a  hexagon. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  cross  the  lines  at  the 
intersections  of  the  circles,  when  such  crossings 
are  not  intended.     This  will  give  good  practice. 

Fig.  42  is  somewhat  complicated,  but  it  is 
surmised  that  no  trouble  will  be  found  in  the 
formation  of  the  ornament;  at  least,  there 
ought  not  to  be,  if  the  student  has  been  mindful 
of  what  has  gone  before. 

There  are   many  situations  in  which  a  curved 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT  61 

line  is  required  that  calls  for  more  or  less  skill 

to  properly  adjust  to  the  purpose,  and  in  order 

to  arm  the  student  with  the  proper  knowledge 

to   find   centers   for  this  purpose,  the  following 

problem  is  laid  before  him:     Suppose  we  have 

three  points  that  are  not  in  a  straight  line,  as 

ABC,   Fig.   43> 

through    which 

we    want    to 

draw  a  portion 

of  a  circle.   Let 

BHCbeachord 

of  the  segment 

H,  and   BJA  a 

chord  enclosing 

the     segment. 

Bisect  or  divide 

in   equal    parts 

the    chord    BC 

at   H,  and  square  down   from  this  point  to   D. 

Do  the  same  with  the  chord  AJB,  squaring  over 

from  J  to  D,  then   the  point  where  JD  and  HD 

intersect  will  be  the  center  of  the  circle. 

This  is  a  very  important  problem,  and  will  be 
found  useful  in  many  ways. 

The  same  result  may  be  obtained  by  the  use 
of  the  compasses  alone  as  may  be  seen  as  follows: 


62 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


Suppose  AB,  Fig.  44,  to  be  the  curve,  from  the 
point  A  and  B  strike  ares  of  equal  radius  inter- 


Fig.  43- 

secting  at  c  and  d,  and  draw  a  line  through  the 
intersections  cutting  the  arc  at  e.     This  line  will 

pass  through  the 
center.  Then  from 
points  e  and  />,  with 
a  rather  shorter  ra- 
dius, strike  arcs  in- 
tersecting at/and^-, 
draw  a  line  through 
these  intersections, 
and  where  the  pre- 
vious line  is  cut  will 
be  the  center  as  shown    at   h. 

A  practical  application  of  this  example  may  be 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SKLF   TAUGHT 


<» 


used  on  Fig.  45,  where  it  is  desired  to  round  off 
a  corner  as  shown  at   BAC.     The  center  of  the 

curve  is  shown  at  O, 
from  which  the  curve 
is  struck. 

Fig.  46  shows  the 
method  just  described 
applied  to  three 
straight  lines  form- 
ing two  right  angles 
and  having  two  adja- 
cent corners  rounded. 
Flg#  45-  Fig.  47  shows  how 

to  deal  with  two  parallel  lines  that  are  to  be  joined 
tangentially  by  a  semicircle.  In  this  case  bisect  the 
space  between  the  two  lines  by  a  perpendicular 
line  that  must  contain  the  center  of  the  circle  from 


Fig.  46. 


Fig.  47- 


Fig.  48. 


Fig-  49- 


which  the  required  circle  is  drawn.  Determine 
the  extreme  position  of  the  curve  and  mark  from 
it,  along  the  center  line,  a  distance  equal  to  half 
the  distance  between   the  lines,  and  this  mark 


04  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT 


PLATE   4. 

This  plate  shows  the  disposition  ot  the  joists 
in  first  and  second  stories,  also  the  position  of 
rafters  and  ridges  on  the  roof.  These  sketches 
show  the  trimmers  for  fireplace  and  stairs.  The 
manner  of  drawing  is  very  simple  and  should 
offer  no  difficulties  to  the  student. 


1 

Plate.4. 


J 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT  <).) 

will  be  the  center  of  the  required  circle.  The 
example  shown  at  Fig.  48  is  a  little  more  difficult 
to  deal  with,  as  in  this  figure  the  lines  which  it  is 
desired  to  join  by  a  curve,  are  not  at  right 
angles.  Therefore  inside  these,  and  at  a 
distance  from  them  equal  to  the  radius  of  the 
curve  which  it  is  desired  to  use,  draw  two 
parallel  lines.  To  do  this,  take  the  radius  in  the 
compasses  and  strike  two  arcs  at  some  distance 
apart  along  the  inside  of  each  line.  Tangent  to 
these  draw  the  two  inner  straight  lines  shown 
dotted,  and  their  intersection  will  give  the 
center  required.  The  exact  points  of  junction 
of  the  straight  lines  with  the  curve  can  be  found 
by  drawing  perpendiculars  from  the  center  to 
the  straight  lines  by  the  method  shown  on  the 
left  hand  side  of  Fig.*48. 

The  illustration,  Fig.  49,  on  the  left  side,  is 
exactly  similar  to  Fig.  48  with  the  exception  that 
it  represents  a  sharper  angle  than  that  shown  by 
the  angle  or  corner  of  the  previous  example. 

At  Fig.  50  is  shown  a  method  of  joining  a 
curve  to  a  straight  line  by  a  smaller  curve.  In 
this  example,  after  drawing  the  given  straight 
line  and  circle,  set  the  compasses  to  the  required 
radius,  and  from  any  point  in  the  circumference 
of   the   circle   describe    a   short    arc   outside    it. 


66 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 


From  the  center  of  the  circle  draw  a  straight  line 
through  this  last  point,  and  its  intersection  with 
the  arc  will  give  the  radius  of  an  arc  concentric 
with  the  large  circle,  which  must  be  drawn 
towards  the  given  line.  Then,  with  the  required 
radius,  again  set  off  arcs  from  the  given  line  to 
give  a  parallel  line,  as  in  Figs.  47  and  48.  The 
intersection  of  this  parallel  line  with  the  larger 
arc  will  give  the  center  to  use  for  the  connecting 


■..'  si 

••    •  • 

Fig.  50.  Fig.  51.  Fig.  52. 

curve.  In  every  case  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
perpendicular  line  from  the  center  of  the 
junction  curve  to  the  line,  or  the  line  joining  the 
centers  of  the  two  curves,  will  give  the  exact 
termination  of  the  junction  curve. 

Fig.  51  is  practically  the  same  as  Fig.  49  with 
different  radii. 

Fig.  52  shows  two  circles  of  different  size 
joined  by  two  curves  of  equal  radii  set  off  upon 
the  same  principle  as  Figs.  50  and  51. 

Fig.  53  shows  a  straight  line  cutting  a  circle 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT  67 

and  joined  by  small  curves  on  the  inside.  After 
drawing  the  circle  and  straight  line,  take  the 
required  radius  of  connecting  curve  and  draw  a 
short  arc  on  the  inside  of  large  curve — say,  on 
the  center  line — and  from  the  main  center  draw 
an  arc  concentric  with  the  large  circle,  but  inside 
it.  Then,  with  the  required  radius,  obtain  a  line 
parallel  to  the  given  line,  and  the  intersections 


Fig.  53-  F'g-  54- 

of  this  parallel  line  with  the  large  arc  will  give 
the  centers  for  the  connecting  curves. 

Fig.  54  shows  two  given  parallel  straight  lines 
which  are  to  be  joined  by  an  ogee  or  reversed 
curve.  Select  a  point  on  one  of  the  lines  from 
which  the  curves  may  start,  draw  a  horizontal 
line  and  also  an  inclined  line,  making  an  angle 
of  6o  degrees  with  it.  The  latter  line  produced 
to  cut  the  other  given  straight  line  will  mark  the 
termination  of  the  curves.  Bisect  this  inclined 
line,  and  it  will  give  the  junction  point  between 
the  two  curves.  Bisect  each  half  of  the  inclined 
line    and    produce    the    bisection    to    meet    the 


68  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

horizontal  lines,  to  give  the  centers  for  the 
curves.  Before  drawing  the  curves,  join  these 
centers,  to  see  that  a  straight  line  will  pass 
exactly  through  the  junction  of  the  two  curves, 
and  then  put  in  the  curves  with  a  radius  equal 
to  half  the  length  of  the  inclined  line.  This  is 
a  very  useful  curve,  and  is  similar  to  those  used 
for  cross-over  roads  on  railways.  In  architecture 
the  best  curves  are  produced  from  conic  sections 
or  freehand.  Circular  curves  have  a  harsh 
appearance.  There  are  nevertheless,  many 
cases  where  they  are  necessary  or  desirable. 

The  draftsman  will  often  be  called  upon  to 
describe  mouldings  of  various  kinds,  and  it  is 
proper  he  should  know  how  to  form  these  so 
that  they  may  accord  with  the  style  for  which 
they   are    intended,    whether    this    be    Greek, 

Roman,  or  otherwise. 

£L 11 ;tJk  The  following  exam- 

lif&  pies  are  old,  but  are 

of   a    kind  that    will 

always   be   in   vogue 

-       and   it  is   but   fitting 

I'ig.  55. 

the  young  student 
and  workman  should  know  how  to  draw  them 
correctly. 

The  example  shown  at  Fig.  55  is  a  Scotia  or 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    8ELF   TAUGHT 


09 


Fig.  56. 


cove  and  is  drawn  as  follows:  Divide  a,  b  into 
three  equal  parts;  with  c  as  a  center  and  the 
radius  c,  a,  describe  the  semi-circle  e,  a,  d.  Then 
with  d  as  a  center 
and  d,  e  as  radius, 
describe  the  quad- 
rant c,  b,  then  a,  e, 
b,  will  form  the  line 
of  moulding. 

Fig.  56  shows  an- 
other method  of 
getting  a  deeper  moulding.  Let  a,  a,  be  the  upper 
line  and  c,  c,  the  lower;  from  a,  drop  a  perpendic- 
ular to  c\  divide  a,  c,  into  seven  equal  parts, 
through  the  third  of  these,  from  a,  draw  a  line 

parallel    to    a,    a; 

from  b,  with  b,  a. 
draw  the  semicir- 
cle b,  d,  and  from 
d,  draw  to  e,  per- 
pendicular to  b,  d ; 
produce  a,  a,  to  e\ 
from  e,  as  a  center, 
r,  with  e,  m,  as  radius,  describe  part  of  a  circie 
to  ;/. 

Fig.  57  shows  an  "echinus,"  or  "ovolo."     This 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  mouldings,  and  was 


70 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


employed  largely  by  the  Greeks  in  many 
positions.  Let  a,  b  be  the  two  points;  join  them 
by  a  line  a,  b\  divide  this  into  seven  equal  parts; 
from  6,  with  b,  c,  and  from  a,  with  the  same 
radius,  describe  arcs  cutting  in  c\  from  c,  with 
c,  a,  describe  the  arc  a,  b.  Another  method  of 
describing  an  ovolo  is  shown  at  Fig.  58.     Let  a, 

b,  and  c,  d,  be  the  two  horizontal  lines  of  the 

figure.  Divide  b,  d, 
into  four  equal  parts; 
make  d,  e,  equal  three 
of  these;  draw  c,  /; 
then  with  any  radius 
greater  than  half  of 
d,f,  with  d,  and  f  as 
centers    respectively, 

describe  the  arc,  cutting  at  g,  from  which,  as  a 
center,  describe  the  arc,  d,  f. 

At  Fig.  59  I  show  a  moulding  called  a 
"quirked  ovolo."  The  projection  in  this  case  is 
made  equal  to  five-sevenths  of  its  height,  as  seen 
by  the  divisions,  and  the  radius  of  the  circle  b, 

c,  is  made  equal  to  two  of  the  divisions,  but 
other  proportions  may  be  taken.  Describe  the 
circle  b,  c,  forming  the  upper  part  of  the  contour, 
and  from  the  point  g;  draw  g,  h,  to  form  a 
tangent  to  the  lower  part  of  the  curve-     Draw 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


71 


g,  a,   perpendicularly  to  g,  /i,  and    make  g,  f, 
equal  to  the  radius  d,  c,  of  the  circle  b,  c\  join/, 


Fig.  59- 


d,  by  a  straight  line,  which  bisect  by  a  line  per- 
pendicular to  it,  meetings,  a,  in  a;  join  a,  d,  and 


Fig.  60. 

produce  the  line  to  c.     Then  from  a,  as  a  center, 

with  the  radius  a,  c,ora,  g,  describe  the  curve  ct  g. 

Fig.  60  is   a  method  where  the  tangent  d,  c, 


72 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 


and  the  projections  are  given.  Through  the 
point  of  extreme  projection  b,  draw  the  vertical 
line  g,  h,  and  through  b,  draw  b,  c,  parallel  to  g, 
h,  and  produce  it  to  a,  making  c,  a,  equal  to  c,  d. 
Divide  e,  b,  and  c,  b,  each  into  the  same  number 


Fig.  61. 

of  equal  parts,  and  through  the  points  of  division 
in  c,  b,  draw  from  a,  straight  lines,  and  through 
the  points  of  division  in  e,  b,  draw  from  d,  right 
lines,  cutting  those  drawn  from  a.  The  inter- 
sections will  be  the  points  through  which  the 
curve  is  traced. 

In  Fig.  61  I  exhibit  a  method  of  describing  the 


AUCIIITKC'J  TKAL    IIH.UVIVC    SELF    TAUGHT 


T.i 


Fig.  62. 


hyperbolic  ovolo  of  the  Grecian  Doric  capital, 
the  tangent  a,  c,  and  projection  b  being  given. 
Draw  d,  e,  g,  /',  a,  perpendicular  to  the  horizon 
and  draw  g,  h,  and  e,  /,  at  right  angles  to  d,  e,  g, 
k,  a.  Make  g,  a  equal 
to  g,  d,  and  e,  k  equal 
to  d,  c\  join  //,  /'.  Di- 
vide //,  k  and  /,  h  into 
the  same  number  of 
parts,  and  draw  lines 
from  a,  through  the 
divisions  of  k,  h,  and 

lines  from  d  through  the  divisions  of  _/,  /i,  and 
their  intersections  are  points  in  the  curve. 

In  Figs.  62  and  63  I  show  a  cove  or  "cavetto" 

mould.  To  de- 
scribe it  let  ab, 
cd,  Fig.  63,  be 
the  lines  at  top 
and  bottom. 
\f  From  b,  draw  to 
d,  perpendicular 
to  a,b\  divide  bd% 
into  three  equal  parts;  from  d,  lay  on  dc  to  e 
equal  to  two  of  these  parts;  join  be,  from  e  and 
b,  with  radius  greater  than  half  eb,  draw  arcs 
cutting  in/;  from/I  with  J,  b,  draw  the  arc  be. 


a 


Fig.  63. 


74 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SKLF   TAUGHT 


Another  method  of  describing  this  moulding  is 
shown  at  Fig.  64.  ab  and  cd,  are  the  two  lines, 
divide  the   perpendicular  into  five  equal  parts, 

make  de  equal  to 


fc 


T&-++JX 

Fig.  64. 


five  of  these  and 
proceed  as  in  the 
last  example. 

The  next  exam- 
ple is  the  cyma 
recta  moulding. 
This  is  considered 
the  most  beautiful  of  mouldings;  and  this  figure 
is  the  simplest  form,  and  is  easily  described;  ab, 
and  cd,  Fig.  65,  are  top  and  bottom  lines  of  the 
moulding,  be  the  height  and  de  the  projection. 
Divide  the  line  d, 
\6ynb  into  twelve 
equal  parts;  take 
six  of  these  parts 
as  radius,  with  b 
and  6  as  centers, 
describe  the  arcs 
g,  with  8  as  a  center,  and  the  same  radius, 
describe  the  arc  67b,  then  with  1  and  6  as  centers 
describe  the  arcs  at  h,  with  h  as  a  center,  describe 
the  arc  d,  6. 

Fig.   66  shows    a  cyma  recta  formed   by   two 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


75 


opposite  curves,  shown  by  the  use  of  ordinates. 
By  taking  a  greater  number  of  points  than 
shown,  as  centers,  the  figure  will  resemble  an 
elliptical  curve.  The  manner  of  drawing  the 
curves  is  shown  on  the  diagram  and  may  be 
easily  followed. 


Fig.  66. 

Pig.  67  shows  a  cyma  recta  formed  with  true 
elliptical  quadrants.  These  curves  may  be 
obtained  by  following  the  lines  in  the  diagram, 
or  by- any  of  the  methods  given  for  obtaining 
elliptical  curves.  This  moulding  can  best  be 
described  by  the  use  of  a  trammel,  an  instrument 
1  will  describe  later  on;  or  the  curve  may  be 
obtained  by  the  use  of  the  ellipsograph,  shown 
in  Fig.  18. 


70 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF    TAUGHT 


These  examples  will  fully  suffice  to  give  the 
learner  good  practice  on  circular  curves,  as  by  a 
combination  of  these,  nearly  every  form  of 
moulding  may  be  made.  A  few  words  on 
elliptical  and  some  of  the  higher  curves  may 
not  be  amiss,  but  I  do  not  think  it  wise  to  over- 


Fig.  67. 
burden  this  work  with  examples  and  instructions 
that    the  ordinary  draftsman  or  workman  may 
never  be  called  upon  to  make  use  of. 

One  of  the  simplest  methods  of  forming  an 
ellipse  is  by  the  aid  of  two  pins,  a  string  and  a 
lead  pencil  as  shown  at  Fig.  68.  Suppose  F  B 
to  be  the  major  or  longest  axis,  or  diameter,  and 
I)  C  the  minor  or  shorter  axis  or  diameter,  and 
E  and   K  the  two  foci.     These  two  points  are 


ARCHITI.C  TVKAl.    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


77 


obtained  by  taking  the  half  of  the  major  axis  A 
B  or  F  A  on  the  compasses,  and,  standing  one 
point  at  D,  cut  the  points  E  and  K  on  the  line  F 
B,  and  at  these  points  insert  the  pins  at  E  and 
K  as  shown.  Take  a  string  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines  and  tie  to  the  pins  at  K,  then  stand 


the  pencil  at  C  and  run  the  string  round  it  and 
carry  the  string  to  the  pin  E,  holding  it  tight 
and  winding  it  once  or  twice  round  the  pin,  and 
then  holding  the  string  with  the  finger.  Run 
the  pencil  around,  keeping  the  loop  of  the  string 
on  the  pencil,  and  it  will  guide  the  latter  in  the 
formation  of  the  curve  as  shown.  When  one- 
half  of  the  ellipse  is  formed,  the  string  may  be 
used  for  the  other  half,  commencing  the  curve 
at  F  or  B,  as  the  case  may  be.     This  is  commonly 


78 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


called  "a  gardener's  oval,''  because  gardeners 
make  use  of  it  for  forming  ornamental  beds  for 
flowers,  or  in  making  curves  for  walks,  etc.,  etc. 
This  method  of  forming  the  curve  is  based  on 
the  well-known  property  of  the  ellipse  that  the 
sum  of  any  two  lines  drawn  from  the  foci  to 
their  circumference  is  the  same. 

The    illustration   shown  at    Fig.   69   shows   a 
trammel   and  the   method  of  using  it  which  is 

very  simple.  The  in- 
strument consists  of 
two  principal  parts, 
g  the  fixed  part  in  the 
form  of  a  cross  as 
C  D,  A  B,  and  the 
movable  tracer  H  G. 
The  fixed  piece  is 
made  of  two  triangular  bars  or  pieces  of  wood 
of  equal  thickness,  joined  together  so  as  to 
be  in  the  same  plane.  On  one  side  of  the 
frame  when  made,  is  a  groove  forming  a 
right-angled  cross;  the  groove  is  shown.  In 
this  groove,  two  studs  are  fitted  to  slide 
easily.  These  studs  are  to  carry  the  tracer  and 
guide  it  on  proper  lines.  The  tracer  may  have 
a  sliding  stud  on  the  end  to  carry  a  lead-pencil, 
or  it  may  have  a  number  of  small  holes  passed 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


79 


through  it,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  to  carry  the 
pencil.  To  draw  an  ellipse  with  this  instrument, 
we  measure  off  half  the  distance  of  the  major 
axis  from  the  pencil  to  the  stud  G,  and  half  the 
minor  axis  from  the  pencil  point  to  the  stud  H, 
then  swing  the  tracer  round,  and  the  pencil  will 
describe  the  ellipse  required.  The  studs  have 
little  projections  on  their  tops,  that  fit  easily  into 
the  holes  in  the  tracer,  but  this  may  be  done 
away  with,  and  two 
brad-awls  or  pins  may 
be  thrust  through  the 
tracer  and  into  the 
studs,  and  then  proceed 
with  the  work.  With 
this  instrument  an  el- 
lipse may  easily  be  de- 
scribed. 


Fig.  70. 


A  figure  that  approximates  an  ellipse  may  be 
described  by  the  compasses,  and  it  is  well  for 
the  draftsman  to  acquaint  himself  with  the 
manner  in  which  this  is  done,  and  to  this  end  I 
submit  perhaps  the  most  useful  method  for  this 
purpose.  Let  us  describe  the  oval  shown  at 
Fig.  70.  Lay  off  the  length  C  D,  and  at  right 
angles  to  it  and  bisecting  it  lay  off  the  width  A 
B.     On  the  larger  diameter  lay  off  a  space  equal 


JJU  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT 


PLATE   5. 

This  elevation  shows  the  front  and  side  eleva- 
tion of  the  cottage  in  finished  order.  Two  styles 
of  drawing  are  shown,  the  one  being  in  plain  line 
and  the  other  shaded.  I  would  not  advise  the 
student  to  attempt  shading  until  such  time  as  he 
feels  assured  he  can  make  a  presentable  piece 
of  work.  Of  course,  I  mean,  he  should  not 
attempt  to  shade  any  drawings  for  exhibition 
until  he  has  had  good  practice  on  preliminary 
work.     This  plate  is  a  very  good  one  to  copy. 


-*M 


I  nwJS 


Plate.5. 


P^prJr      ^isTd      51C: 


rVf/rioNj 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    8ELF  TAUGHT  81 

to  the  shorter  diameter  or  width,  as  shown  by  D 
E.  Divide  the  remainder  of  the  length  or  larger 
diameter  E  C  into  three  equal  parts;  with  two 
of  these  parts  as  a  radius,  and  R  as  a  center, 
strike  the  circle  GSFT.  Then,  with  F  as  a 
center  and  F  G  as  a  radius,  and  G  as  a  center 
and  G  F  as  radius  strike  the  arcs  as  shown, 
intersecting  each  other  and  cutting  the  line 
drawn  through  the  shorter  diameter  at  O  and 
P  respectively.  From  O,  through  the  points 
G  and  F,  draw  OL  and  OM,  and  likewise  from 
P  through  the  same  points  draw  PK  and  PN. 
With  O  as  center  and  OA  as  radius,  strike  the 
arc  LM,  and  with  P  as  center  and  with  like 
radius,  or  PB  which  is  the  same,  strike  the  arc 
KNT.  With  F  and  G  as  centers,  and  with  F  D  and 
C  G  which  are  the  same,  for  radii,  strike  the 
arcs  NM  and  K  L  respectively,  thus  completing 
the  figure. 

The  oval  is  not  an  ellipse,  nor  are  any  of  the 
figures  obtained  by  using  the  compasses,  as  no 
part  of  an  ellipse  is  a  circle,  though  it  may 
approach  closely  to  it.  The  oval  may  sometimes 
be  useful  to  the  draftsman,  and  it  maybe  well  to 
illustrate  one  or  two  methods  by  which  this 
figure  may  be  described. 

Let  us  describe  a  diamond  or  lozenge-shaped 


8* 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT 


figure,  such  as  shown  at  Fig.  71,  and  then  trace 
a  curve  inside  of  it  as  shown,  touching  the  four 
sides  of  the  figure,  and  a  beautiful  egg-shaped 
curve  will  be  formed.  For  effect  we  may 
elongate  the  lozenge  or  shorten  it  at  will, 
placing  the  shorter  diameter  at  any  point. 


Fig.  71. 


An  egg-shaped  oval  may  also  be  inscribed  in 
a  figure  having  two  unequal  but  parallel  sides, 
both  of  which  are  bisected  by  the  same  line, 
perpendicular  to  both  as  shown  in  Fig.  72. 
These  few  examples  are  quite  sufficient  to  satisfy 
the  requirements  of  the  ordinary  draftsman,  as 
they  give  the  key  by  which  he  may  construct 
any  oval  he  may  ever  be  called  upon  to  form. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


83 


Scrolls  often  have  to  be  drawn  by  draftsmen, 
and  these  may  be  obtained,  more  or  less 
accurately,  by  various  methods.  One  method 
employed,  is  by  making  use  of  two  lead  pencils 
well  sharpened  and  arranged  as  shown  in  Fig. 
73.  A  piece  of  string  is  tied  tightly  around  one 
of  the  pencils  and  wound  around  the  conical  end 
as  shown,  while  the  point  of  the  second  pencil 


Fig.  72. 


Fig.  73- 


either  pierces  the  string  or  the  string  is  looped 
to  hold  the  pencil,  near  the  other  pencil,  which 
leaves  the  arrangement  ready  for  work.  To 
draw  the  scroll  the  pencils  must  be  kept  vertical, 
the  point  of  the  first  kept  firmly  in  the  hole  or 
center  of  the  figure,  and  the  second  pencil  must 
then  be  carried  around  the  first,  with  the  mark- 
ing point  held  in  touch  with  the  paper,  the 
distance  between  the  two  increasing  regularly  as 
the  string  unwinds. 

This  is  a  rough-and-ready  means  of  drawing  a 


84 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT 


scroll,   but   it   has    the    quality   of    being   fairly 
correct. 

Another  similar  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  74, 
only  in  this  case  the  string  unwinds  from  a  spool 
on  a  fixed  center  A,  D,  B.  Make  loop  E  in  the 
end  of  the  thread,  in 
which  place  a  pencil 
as  shown.  Hold  the 
spool  firmly  and  move 
the  pencil  around 
it,  unwinding  the 
thread.  A  curve  will 
be  described,  as 
shown  in  the  lines. 
It  is  evident  that  the 
proportions  of  the 
figureare  determined 


Fig.  74. 


by  the  size  of  the  spool.  Hence  a  larger  or 
smaller  spool  is  to  be  used,  as  circumstances 
require. 

A  simple  method  of  forming  a  figure  that 
corresponds  to  the  spiral  somewhat  is  shown  in 
Fig.  75  This  js  drawn  from  two  centers  only,  a 
and  e,  and  if  the  distance  between  these  centers 
is  not  too  great,  a  fairly  smooth  appearance  will 
be  given  to  the  figure.  The  method  of  describ- 
ing  is  simple.     Take  ai  as  radius  and  describe 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  85 

a  semicircle;  then  take  ei  and  describe  semi- 
circle 12  on  the  lower  side  of  the  line  AB.  Then 
with  a2  as  radius  describe  semicircle  below  the 
line  AB;  lastly  with  a3  as  radius  describe  semi- 
circle above  the  line  and  the  figure  is  complete. 
These  examples,  and  what  may  be  deduced 
from  them,  will  be  quite  enough  to  satisfy  the 
requirements  of  the  draftsman  who  does  not 
intend  to  follow  this  art  further  than  as  an  aid 


Fig.  75- 

to  his  profession  as  a  builder  and  workman,  so 
now  I  will  offer  a  few  pages  on  straight  line 
work. 

LINE    WORK 

In  previous  pages  I  gave  a  few  suggestions 
regarding  line  work  done  with  the  ruling  pen, 
and  I  now  supplement  them  by  submitting  the 
following  examples  numbered  from  Fig.  76  to 
78   inclusive,   which    the    student    is   advised   to 


86 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


draw  and  redraw,  first  by  measuring  off  the 
distances,  and  then  by  attempting  to  get  the 
exact  distances  without  measurement.  If  the 
lines  in  the  examples  are  placed  less  than  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  apart,  they  will  appear,  at  a 
little  distance,  like  an  even  tint  of  shading,  and 
the  closer  they  are  the  more  difficult  will  it  be 
to  get   the   appearance  quite  uniform,  but  this 


D 

^ 

o 

Fig.  76. 


Fig.  77- 


Fig.  78. 


kind  of  work  makes  excellent  practice  for  the 
pen. 

These  examples  are  selected  from  a  large 
number  of  possible  combinations,  as  giving 
variety  of  practice  while  not  appearing  too 
difficult.  They  are,  however,  more  difficult 
than  they  appear,  so  that  they  must  be  com- 
menced with  the  determination  to  produce  very 
neat  and  accurate  drawings. 

After  drawing  the  border  line  in  pencil,  %  in. 
from  each  edge  of  the  paper,  find  by  measure- 
ment the  center  of  the  paper,  so  that  the  second 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT  87 

square,  Fig.  77,  may  be  placed  in  the  middle, 
rule  a  horizontal  line  for  the  square  to  rest 
upon,  draw  the  middle  one  in  outline  first,  and 
then  the  others,  each  measuring  3  in.  along  one 
side.  The  spaces  between  the  border  line  and 
each  of  the  squares  should  be  equal.  In  the 
upper  half  of  the  first  square,  Fig.  76,  mark  off 
equal  divisions  of  ){  in.  each,  and  draw  hori- 
zontal lines;  then,  in  the  lower  half,  mark  off 
similar  distances  and  draw  vertical  lines.  In 
the  second  square,  Fig.  76,  equal  distances  must 
be  set  off  from  each  of  the  sides,  and  parallel 
lines  drawn,  so  as  to  make  a  number  of  com- 
plete squares.  These  should  be  drawn  with  a 
fine  chisel-pointed  pencil,  and  then  tested  by 
drawing  diagonal  lines  from  opposite  corners. 
If  the  squares  have  been  correctly  set  out,  all  the 
angles  will  be  upon  one  or  other  of  the  diagonal 
lines.  In  the  third  square,  Fig.  ?&,  the  inner 
squares  are  drawn  with  their  angles  tangent  to 
the  sides  of  the  one  next  larger.  If  very  fine 
pencil  lines  are  drawn  across  opposite  angles  of 
the  outer  square,  and  then  two  other  lines 
bisecting  the  sides,  it  will  be  found  easy  to  join 
up  the  inner  squares  to  the  points  so  found. 

After  the  squares  are  completed  in  pencil,  fill 
in  or  line  over  with  the  ruling  pen  and  ink. 


88 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


The    set   of    lines   shown    at    Fig.    79   are  of 
different  strength  or  breadth,  all  of  which  may 

be  drawn  by  a  skil- 

—      ful  use  of  the  pen. 
— mm Jjjj; m m wmm ^ mam^m      ^n  simple  work  of 

this  kind  the  lines 
need  not  be  pen- 
ciled only  perhaps, 
to  define  the  limits 
of  the  lines. 

Fig.    80    gives 
practice    in    draw- 
ing dotted  lines. 
Such    lines    are 


Fig.  79- 


necessary  in  all  kinds  of  working  drawings.  The 
more  important 
ones  should  be  first 
drawn  with  pencil. 
These  methods 
of  lining  should  be 
practiced  until  the 
student  can  make 
them  clear  and 
clean  without  much 
effort.  The  illus- 
tration   shown    at 


Fig.   80. 


Fig.   81    exhibits   a   method   of    cross   lines,   in 


ARCHITECT!/ UAL    DRAWING    SELF     TAUGHT 


89 


making  of  which  the  student  must  be  careful 
and  see  that  one  set  of  lines  are  perfectly  dry 
before  being  crossed  by  the  others.  It  is  well 
to  try  the  pen  upon  a  separate  piece  of  paper 
before  applying  it  to  the  drawing. 

W  here  the 
drawings  are 
complex  or  very 
particular,  they 
should  always 
be  made  first  in 
pencil  and  inked 
in  afterwards; 
then,  if  any  cor- 
rections are  nec- 
essary, they  may 
be  made  before 
the  inking  is  done,  and  the  superficial  lines 
can  be  taken  out  by  erasing  them.  To  erase 
strong  pencil  marks  requires  hard  rubbing, 
which  destroys  the  surface  of  the  paper.  Be 
careful  in  making  pencil  lines  and  do  not  get  in 
more  than  are  wanted,  as  confusion  in  inking  is 
sure  to  follow  if  too  many  lines  are  in  evidence. 

The  penciling  being  done,  the  drawing  may  be 
inked  in,  but  before  starting  the  following 
instructions  must  be  considered.     The  drawing 


—  _---__  _  _  __ 

—  —  m  mi  —  —  — m  — .  —  —  --.i     __- 


Fig.  81. 


90 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


pen  is  filled  by  dropping  the  ink  between  the 
nibs  while  held  in  a  nearly  vertical  position,  as 
before  stated.  The  pen  can  be  used  with  a 
straight  edge  ruler;  the  taper  to  the  point  is 
sufficient  to  throw  it  far  enough  away  from  the 
edge  to  prevent  blotting  if  care  is  taken.  The 
breadth  of  the  line  is  regulated  by  adjusting  the 
screw.     If  the  pen  is  not  in  use,  even  for  a  short 

time,  be  sure  to 
take  out  the  ink 
with  a  blotter  and 
dry  the  pen  thor- 
oughly. The  nibs 
should  be  kept  per- 
fectly bright  and 
clean.  The  liquid 
India  ink  which 
comes  in  bottles  is 
nowgenerallyused. 
This  much  being  thoroughly  understood,  I  will 
now  try  and  give  a  few  hints  as  to  the  proper 
method  of  using  the  drawing  pen.  Fig.  82  shows 
the  method  of  holding  the  pen.  The  pen  is  held 
between  the  thumb  and  two  forefingers,  and 
carried  along  the  ruler  from  left  to  right,  with 
the  flat  blades  always  parallel  to  the  direction 
of  the  line;    otherwise  the   pen  will   either   be 


Fig.  82. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT  91 

running  on  the  edge  of  the  blade  only,  or  in  such 
a  position  that  the  ink  cannot  flow  freely  from 
its  points.  The  result  in  either  case  would  be  a 
broken  or  ragged  line,  a  condition  to  be  avoided, 
or  a  bad  drawing  will  result. 

In  marking  off  dimensions  on  a  drawing,  a 
system  of  rough  lines  is  generally  adopted  which 
is  illustrated  at  Fig.  83,  when  a  dimension  is 
shown  guiding  the  sight    from    arrow-point    to 

< > 

< > 

Fig.  83. 

arrow-point.  These  lines  should  consist  of 
strokes  not  more  than  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch 
long  and  should  have  not  less  than  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  space  between  them.  It  will  be  worth 
while  to  measure  these  distances  for  a  few 
times  at  first  when  drawing  them  so  as  to  get 
into  the  practice  of  getting  them  about  right, 
though  in  a  very  short  time  the  draftsman  will 
be  able  to  strike  the  distances  near  enough  with- 
out measuring.  When  making  finished  draw- 
ings in  practice,  it  is  found  best,  when  inking  in, 
to  use  straight  blue  or  red  ink  lines  terminating 
at  the  ends  by  black  arrow-heads. 

When  it  is  desired  to  show  the  interior  con- 


02  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

struction  of  any  object,  an  imaginary  cut  is  made 
through  it,  and  the  representation  of  the  cut 
surface  is  called  a  section.  The  direction  of  the 
cut  is  marked  upon  the  original  drawing  by  a 


A B 

Fig.  84. 

line  of  section,  formed  of  strokes  and  dots  placed 
alternately,  with  a  letter  at  each  end,  as  A  B 
upon  Fig.  84.  This  line  is  usually  in  red  ink, 
but  as  all  the  work  in  the  present  lessons  is 
black  and  white,  this  dotted  section  line  may  be 
made  the  same  as  the  other  lines. 

The  mode  of  marking  off  distances  between 
two   points   is   shown    at    Fig.    85,    where    the 


.    6'.4K2"  . 


* 


Fig.  85. 

arrow-heads  mark  the  limitation;  that  is,  the 
distance  between  the  lines  which  are  touched  by 
the  points  of  the  arrows,  is  6  feet  four  and  a 
half  inches.  This  is  marked  off  regardless  of 
scale,  and  the  method  will  be  found  useful  when 
roughing  out  a  house  plan,  elevation,  or  other 
similar  work,  as  the  dimensions  of  rooms,  sizes 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT 


93 


of  windows  and  doors,  heights  of  ceilings,  and 
all  other  dimensions  can  be  given  without  draw- 
ing to  scale.  I  will  have  more  to  say  of  this 
later  on. 


THE    LEAD    PENCIL 


So  far  I  have  said  but  little  regarding  the  lead 
pencil,  which  is  a  very  important   factor  in   the 


Fig.  86.  Fig.  87. 

draftsman's  hands.  As  before  stated,  all  draw- 
ings of  any  importance  should  first  be  made  in 
pencil;  and  a  hard  pencil  should  be  used  for  the 
purpose;  in  fact,  there  should  be  two  pencils, 
one  of  which  should  be  pointed  similar  to  those 
shown  at  Fig.  86,  and  the  other  should  be 
sharpened  with  a  chisel-point  similar  to  those 
shown  at  Fig.  87.  These  two  illustrations,  Figs. 
86  and  87,  show  two  methods  of  sharpening, 
either  of  which  will  answer  the  purpose  quite 
well. 


94  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 

The  pencil  should  be  used  solely  at  first  for 
practicing,  and  the  most  expensive  drawing 
pencils  are  often  the  most  economical  to  use  in 
drawing.  There  are  many  well-known  makes 
that  may  be  depended  upon  to  work  smoothly 
and  evenly  without  grittiness  or  inequality  of 
texture.  The  number  of  H's  marked  upon  the 
pencil  indicates  its  relative  hardness.  For 
general  use  those  marked  H  or  HH  will  be 
suitable,  while  for  particularly  fine  work 
HHHHHH  may  be  necessary.  For  roughly 
sketching  details  on  a  large  scale,  a  very  soft 
lead,  such  as  BBB,  will  be  found  pleasantest  to 
work  with.  Pencils  of  unvarnished  cedar  are  to 
be  preferred,  and  those  of  a  hexagonal  section 
do  not  roll  off  the  sloping  surface  of  the  draw- 
ing-board or  desk. 

Almost  the  first  lesson  for  a  draftsman  is  how 
to  properly  sharpen  a  pencil,  which  is  not  easy 
for  the  beginner  to  accomplish  satisfactorily.  A 
pencil  point  should  be  well  sharpened  so  that 
when  the  pencil  is  passing  along  the  edge  of  the 
square  it  should  be  close  against  it;  and  in 
ordinary  drawing  or  tracing,  a  clear  view  should 
be  obtained  completely  around  it  on  the  paper. 

A  round  point  wears  away  very  rapidly,  and 
will  hardly  make  even  one  fine  line,  whereas  if 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SKLK   TAUGHT 


95 


..he  edge  be  kept  the  full  thickness  of  the  lead 
in  the  direction  of  the  line  the  pencil  will  last 
very  much  longer  and  produce  better  work;  the 
flat  faces  of  the  lead  point  may  be  slightly 
rounded. 

If  properly  sharpened,  one  operation  of  the 
knife  on  the  wood  will  be  sufficient  to  allow  of 
several  re-sharpenings  of  the  lead,  whilst  a 
badly-sharpened  point  requires  further  hacking 


Fig.  88. 


Fig.  89. 


of  the  wood  every  time  the  lead  is  slightly  worn. 
Fig.  88  shows  the  T-square  and  pencil  with 
the  two  hands  in  position  for  drawing  an 
ordinary  horizontal  line.  The  pencil  should  be 
upright  when  looking  in  the  lengthways  direction 
of  the  line,  and  sloping  about  five  degrees  from 
the  upright  in  the  direction  in  which  it  is  being 
drawn,  as  would  be  seen  at  right  angles  to  the 
line,  and  in  Fig.  89  the  method  of  holding  the 
pencil  for  freehand  or  tracing  work  is  shown. 
This  is  on   a  larger  scale   in   order  to  show  the 


96      ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING  SELF  TAUGHT 


PLATE  6. 

This  plate  shows  the  draftsman  how  to  prepare 
details  so  that  they  may  be  followed  by  the  actual 
workman.  This  shows  some  details  of  the 
porch,  giving  the  construction  of  cornice  and 
other  work. 

This  is  shown  here  to  a  scale  of  one  quarter 
of  an  inch  to  the  foot.  It  represents,  of  course, 
a  portion  of  the  cottage. 


: 


0 


Pli 


DETAIL^ 


olT   Poi^ch 


* 


\ 

\ 

\; 

\i 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 


ZL 


■ 


. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT  97 

manner  of  holding  the  pencil  for  this  kind  of 
work. 

After  this  from  each  edge  of  the  paper  mark 
off  yi  in.  and  draw  a  border  line  all  round,  with 
plain  square  corners.  The  three  fingers  at  the 
back  of  the  stock  of  the  T-square  keep  it  close 
to  the  edge  of  the  board,  which  is  not  easy  to  do 
at  first  starting,  but  with  a  little  patience  and 
perseverance  every  border  line  can  be  drawn 
with  equal  facility.  It  is  important  to  note  that 
all  pencil  lines  upon  a  drawing  should  be  thin; 


4- 


■«V>"»V«j«'*/^  ■ 


Fig.  90.  Fig.  91. 

if  made  thick  they  cannot  be  inked  over  so 
neatly,  and  the  paper  will  have  a  greasy  feel  to 
the  pen.  The  india  rubber  should  be  used  very 
sparingly  and  if  possible  only  after  a  drawing  is 
completely  inked  in. 

A  pencil  line  drawn  in  error  should  have  a 
wavy  mark  across  it,  as  in  Fig.  90,  and  one 
drawn  full,  but  intended  to  be  inked  in  dotted, 
should  be  marked  as  in  Fig.  91;  this  is  instead 
of  rubbing  them  out  at  the  time.  Another 
fundamental  principle  is  always  to  draw  a  line 
far  enough  at  the  first  attempt,  but  not  to  draw 
it  beyond  the  distance  it  is  known  to  be  wanted. 


98  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT 

An  unnecessary  line  takes  time  to  draw,  wastes 
the  pencil  point,  and  takes  time  to  rub  out;  all 
matters  of  moment  when  excellence  is  in  view. 
Of  course,  all  corrections  must  be  made  whilst 
the  drawing  is  in  pencil,  for  a  drawing,  while  in 
ink,  cannot  be  corrected,  without  great  injury 
being  done  to  it,  as  erasions  of  ink  spoil  the 
surface  of  the  paper  and  disfigure  the  whole 
work. 


Fig.  92- 

When  a  drawing  is  completed,  the  pencil  lines 
may  be  erased  by  using  a  proper  rubber  similar 
to  that  shown  at  Fig.  92,  which  can  be  pur- 
chased for  a  few  cents.  Some  of  these  erasers 
are  made  so  that  one  end  of  them  is  specially 
devised  for  rubbing  out  pencil  lines  while  the 
other  end  is  intended  for  erasing  ink  lines. 
Never  use  the  ink  end  when  it  can  possibly  be 
avoided,  as  it  will  destroy  the  fine  surface  of  the 
paper  and  disfigure  the  drawing. 

When  it  can  be  afforded,  it  is  best  to  buy  a 
case  of  assorted  pencils.  They  will  come 
cheaper  this  way,  and  a  case  will  last  for  years 


ARCHITKCTUKAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT  99 

and  the  draftsman  will  always  have  at  hand 
pencils  to  suit  all  sorts  of  work.  Faber's  pencils 
were  considered  the  best  for  many  years,  but 
they  are  rapidly  being  driven  out  of  the  market 
by  pencils  of  American  manufacture.  Dixon's 
pencils  are  excellent  and  may  be  relied  upon  to 
give  good  results,  but,  in  my  own  practice  I 
make  use  of  "Eagle  Pencils"  and  find  in  them 
the  best  of  satisfaction.  This,  however,  is  per- 
haps after  all  merely  a  matter  of  taste,  a  pref- 
erence for  a  name  or  firm. 

Pencils — like  all  other  drawing  appliances — 
should  be  kept  in  a  case  and  should  always  be 
in  order  for  work,  so  that  in  a  hurried  job,  there 
will  be  no  need  to  hunt  all  over  for  a  pencil,  or 
a  knife  to  sharpen  it.  These  few  hints  regarding 
pencils  will,  I  hope,  prove  useful  to  the  young 
draftsman. 

PRELIMINARY    ROUGH    SKETCHES 

Often  workmen  are  called  upon  to  make  a 
rough  sketch  of  a  piece  of  work  before  making 
a  drawing  of  it  in  order  to  get  a  fair  under- 
standing with  the  employer.  A  rough  sketch 
taken  off-hand  with  dimensions  put  on  in  figures 
will  often  give  to  the  person  ordering  the  work 
a   clear   idea   of    what    he     intends     and     thus 


100  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


.1 


~|W 


w 


o 

•<** 


~1 


<= t     -11. 0 ± 


JU  7>     -^_*0  Tp    , 


-".Vii  5.  ^><Wf.fer-&S=S 


Z0-  a 


'PtrLot* . 


-b» 


*r 


AC 


i     <S 


T  l//*uf 


^f2^-^r 


Fig.  93. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  101 

prevent  disputes,  annoyances  and  misunder- 
standings. 

Rough  sketches  may  be  made  of  any  size  and 
without  reference  to  scale  or  regard  to  exactness, 
providing  always,  the  dimensions  are  given.  In 
order  to  illustrate  this  I  show  a  rough  sketch  of 
a  house  plan  at  Fig.  93.  We  suppose,  for 
instance,  a  man  wants  a  small  house;  in  the 
house  he  desires  a  parlor  18x20  feet,  a  dining 
room  18x20  feet  and  a  kitchen  18x22  feet,  and  a 
side  hall  with  stairway,  6'6",  length  of  the  house, 
with  all  the  necessary  windows,  bays,  and  doors, 
also  chimneys  and  fire-places.  The  whole  may 
be  drawn,  without  scale,  as  shown  in  the  pur- 
posely rough  illustration.  This  at  once  gives  a 
correct  idea  of  the  plan  of  the  house  and  the 
general  lay  out.  After  satisfying  all  the  con- 
ditions required  in  the  plan,  a  rough  sketch  of 
the  elevation,  showing  height  of  ceilings,  pitch 
of  roof,  windows  and  other  necessaries;  may  be 
reduced  to  scale  and  drawn  on  paper  in  regular 
order.  Another  rough  sketch  is  shown  at  Fig. 
94,  on  a  much  smaller  basis.  I  do  not  advise 
making  these  sketches  too  small,  particularly  if 
they  are  intended  to  submit  to  a  prospective 
owner,  as  then  they  are  apt  to  be  misleading. 

Any  one  acquainted  with  building  matters  or 


102 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


Pas 


M 


m 


Lob. 


k,t 


Par/ 


the  reading  of  plans,  will  have  no  difficulty 
whatever  in  thoroughly  understanding  these 
rough  sketches,  or  in  making  a  scale  drawing 
from  them,  if  they  have  the  least  knowledge  of 
drawing.  The  windows  and 
£^-£5£2-X^*=-  =*■  doors  are  shown  so  far  as  posi- 
tion is  concerned,  and  are 
marked  respectively,  W  and 
D.  Where  the  dimensions  of 
these  are  decided  upon,  these 
M  i  x  dimensions  may  be  marked  on 
the  plan,  and  a  rough  sketch 
of  the  elevation  given;  if  for 
a  door,  make  it  as  shown  in  95, 
showing  number  of  panels, 
and  in  such  style  as  intended. 
If  the  door  is  elaborate,  then, 
of  course  greater  pains  will 
have  to  be  taken,  and  this  can 
^^\^^S**p-  best  be  done  by  making  it  a 
Fi  scale  drawing.      If  the  design 

wanted  is  for  a  window,  then 
a  rough  sketch  may  be  made  similar  to  the 
one  shown  at  Fig.  96,  which  is  a  simple  6  light 
window.  A  more  elaborate  sash  is  shown  at  97, 
which  may  be  roughed  out  to  the  style  shown, 
or  to  any  other  style  desires. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


103 


These  five  rough  examples  are  quite  sufficient 
to  convey  to  the  student  an  idea  of  how  he  can 
lay  out  a  rough  sketch  from  which  he  may 
construct  an  exact  scale  drawing.  In  the  plans 
shown,  I  have  not  given  thickness  of  walls;  this 


WMi/iMmntwrirr, 


Fig.  95.  Fig.  96. 

the  draftsman  can   arrange  when   he  plots  out 
his  plan. 

I  now  present  a  few  examples  which  show  the 
method  of  marking  off  measurements  and  show- 
ing the  thickness  of  walls,  dimensions  of  windows, 
etc.  The  illustration  shown  at  Fig.  98  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  front  of  a  building  having  a  front 
entrance  and  windows,  and  an  "over-all"  meas- 


104 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


urement  of  30/6".     This  shows  18b"  for  the  pro- 
jection, and  2i'6"  for  the  reserved  part. 

These  measurements  should  be  again  sub- 
divided, showing  the  lengths  of  brickwork 
widths  of  openings,  etc.;  and  the  line  of  meas- 
urements inside  gives  the 
thickness  of  the  walls,  di- 
mensions of  rooms,  etc.  The 
distance  that  the  part  pro- 
jects should  also  be  noted 
as  shown  by  30".  The  in- 
side measurements  and  the 
smaller  dimensions  should 
exactly  agree  with  the  "over- 
all" measurement  given. 

In  drawing  pencil  lines 
they  should  always  be 
drawn  longer  than  the  ac- 
tual length  of  the  lines  to 
be  inked  in,  so  that  the 
exact  point  of  intersection 
with  other  lines  can  be  better 
seen.  When  the  drawing  has  been  inked  in,  these 
extra  lengths,  of  course,  have  to  be  cleaned  oft 
with  india  rubber,  as  well  as  a  great  many  other 
pencil  lines  which  are  necessary  in  the  process 
of  making  the  drawing,  but  which  form  no  part 


Fig.  97. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT  105 

of  the  finished  drawing.  These  "construction 
lines,"  as  they  are  called,  should  be  drawn  as 
lightly  as  possible,  so  as  to  be  easily  removed 
without  greatly  damaging  the  surface  of  the 
paper.  When  drawing  circles  or  arcs  of  circles 
with  the  compasses,  a  little  pencil  mark  should 
be  made  round  the  center  point,  so  that  it  can 
be  found  without  any  trouble  when  it  is  desired 
to  ink  in  the  drawing.     It  is  useless  to  draw  in 


Fig.  98. 

pencil  every  one  of  a  long  series  of  circles  or 
arcs  which  are  alike;  it  will  be  more  expeditious 
to  mark  the  centers  only  after  drawing  one  or 
two,  for  in  the  inking-in  of  the  work  when  the 
compasses  are  once  set  to  the  correct  radius,  the 
centers  will  be  all  that  is  required  to  draw  them 
in  full. 

Every  working  drawing  when  it  leaves  the 
draftsman  should  be  carefully  and  completely 
figured  as  shown  in  Fig.  98.  A  little  time  spent 
in  figuring  builders'  drawings,  so  that  the  sizes 


106  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 

of  window  and  door  openings,  thickness  of  walls, 
etc.,  are  clearly  stated,  will  save  time,  worry 
and  inconvenience.  A  measurement  of  feet 
only  should  always  have  a  cipher  in  the  place  of 
the  inches  as  280",  and  arrow-heads,  as  before 
described,  should  show  the  extreme  limits  of  the 
intended  dimensions.  Perhaps  it  may  not  be 
necessary  to  explain  to  the  student  the  use  of 
the  foot  and  inch  marks,  '  and  "  which  should 
always  be  placed  over  dimensions  figures  The 
single  mark  denoting  feet,  and  the  double  mark 
representing  inches,  when  employed  they  greatly 
assist  in  reading  of  plans. 

Vertical  measurements  showing  the  height  of 
rooms  or  stories  are  best  figured  from  floor  to 
floor — rarely  from  floor  to  ceiling — but  allowance 
must  be  made  for  the  depth  of  joists  and  thick- 
ness of  floor  and  ceiling.  The  height  of  windows 
should  be  always  figured  from  the  top  of  the  sill 
to  the  underside  of  the  head,  and  their  position 
from  the  level  of  the  floor  to  the  top  of  the  sill, 
this  giving  exactly  the  opening  in  the  frame  or 
brickwork.  When  a  drawing  is  carefully  figured 
it  is  much  easier  for  the  workman  to  understand, 
and  mistakes  and  misunderstandings  are  less 
liable  to  occur. 

We    have   now   reached    a   point   where    the 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  107 

student  may  venture  to  attempt  a  rough  draw- 
ing for  a  small  cottage,  and  to  this  end  the 
following  illustrations  are  submitted. 

We  will  suppose  that  a  brick  cottage  31  feet 
long  and  10/6"  wide  is  to  be  built,  having  three 
rooms  and  a  hall  on  main  floor,  a  cellar,  and 
attic  containing  three  bedrooms,  and  attic.  The 
foundation  is  to  be  of  stone,  the  superstructure 
of  bricks,  and  the  roof  of  wood,  shingled. 
Having  the  paper  properly  tacked  on  the  draw- 


•xcutti:         •         •  *         • 

I    B    L-l    UJ    H    LJ    H- 


Fig.  99. 

ing  board,  ready  for  work,  we  next  decide  upon 
a  scale.  I  would  suggest  a  scale  of  four  feet  to 
the  inch;  that  is,  each  quarter  of  an  inch  should 
represent  one  foot  of  the  building;  and  as  this  is 
an  easy  scale,  and  one  that  can  be  readily  under- 
stood by  the  student,  he  will  have  no  trouble  in 
dealing  with  it.  A  scale  is  shown  at  Fig.  99. 
Of  course,  the  quarter  inch  must  be  divided  into 
twelve  parts — which  will  be  found  on  any  good 
rubber  or  ivory  scale — then  square  off  a  fine 
pencil  line  from  your  left  hand  across  the  paper 
near  the  lower  edge  of  the  board.  From  this 
line,  draw  another  at  a  convenient  point  at  right 
angles  to  the  first  line.     Make  these  lines  with  a 


108 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT 


fine  pointed  HB  pencil,  and  so  light  that  they 
may  be  easily  erased.  From  the  junction  of  the 
two  lines,  F,  Fig.  ioo,  measure  off  7^  inches, 
which  will  equal  31  quarter  inches,  which  again 
represent  31  feet  by  scale.  From  this  point,  B, 
square  up   another  line.      From   E    to    F,   is   a 


Fig.  100.     Cellar  Plan. 

distance  of  4^3  inches,  which  contains  19  quarter 
inches  and  one  %  of  an  inch.  The  19  quarter 
inches  represent  19  feet  on  scale,  and  the  yi  of 
an  inch  represents  6  inches,  thus,  making  the 
total  distance  between  E  and  F,  19  feet  and  6 
inches.  Square  over  from  E  to  A,  and  the  lines 
A  B,  E  F,  form  the  boundary  of  the  cellar  plan. 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT  109 

The  cellar  walls  are  supposed  to  be  of  stone,  and 
are  therefore  18  inches  thick,  so  we  measure  off, 
working  to  the  inside  always,  -)6  of  an  inch, 
which  according  to  our  scale,  represents  i  ft.  6 
in.,  the  proper  thickness  of  the  wall. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  at  R  we  have  projected 
the  wall  inside  the  cellar;  this  projection  is 
intended  to  carry  the  chimney  and  fireplace. 
Here  we  show  two  projections,  but  in  practice 
the  projection  is  made  in  one  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines.  The  same  is  also  done  with  the 
chimney  foundation  shown  at  S.  While  the 
shaded  parts  shown  would  be  ample  to  carry  the 
chimney  and  fireplace  above,  it  is  generally 
more  economical  to  make  a  solid  block  of  stone- 
work, as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  In  actual 
practice,  the  first  stones  laid  should  project 
beyond  the  faces  of  the  wall  six  or  more  inches 
on  each  side  in  order  to  give  the  foundation  a 
wider  base.  These  bottom  stones  are  called 
"footings."  They  should  never  be  less  than  6 
inches  thick. 

The  partition  V  is  built  of  bricks  laid  on  stone 
footings.  This  wall  is  nine  inches  thick — the 
length  of  a  brick — and  runs  up  to  the  floor  joists. 
The  partition  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  stair- 
way is  a  studded,  lathed  and  plastered  one.     The 


110 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SKLF   TAUGHT 


openings,  O,  O,  are  for  the  cellar  windows  and 
are  three  feet  (}{  inch)  wide.  The  framework 
outside  the  windows  are  curbs,  built  around  the 
windows  to  prevent  the  earth  from  filling  in 
against  the  glass.  The  student  need  not  mind 
the  shading  unless  he  desires  to  fill  in  the  walls. 


Fig.  ioi.     First  Floor  Plan. 

This  sketch  is  now  a  complete  plan  of  the  cellar, 
and  one  that  can  be  worked  to. 

It  will  now  be  in  order  to  draw  the  first  floor 
plan,  as  shown  in  Fig.  ioi.  Proceed  the  same 
as  before,  only  in  this  case  the  outer  walls  are 
made  %  inch  thick,  which  represents  one  foot, 
making  the  wall  one  and  one-half  bricks  thick. 
Measure  off  the  openings  as  shown,  making  the 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  111 


Fig.  102.     Attic  Plan. 

window  openings  which  are  represented  by  three 
lines  running  through  the  openings  (^  inch 
wide),  which  is  three  feet.     The  two  door  open- 


o 


3       [ 


1 

. 

3       [ 


P 


t         i        i'         t 


Fig.  103.     Front  Elevation. 


J  12  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


PLATE   7. 

Plate  7  exhibits  a  portion  of  cornice  and  roof 
of  main  building.  This  shows  the  construction, 
with  roof  boards  and  shingles,  also  the  finished 
portion  of  roof  and  cornice. 


eJ*£B(2) 


^-*zT)\\&,. 


. 


©S/yL3 


. 


'"---:' 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 


113 


ings  arc  13-16  inch,  or  3  feet  3  in.  Measure  off 
the  partitions  and  lay  off  to  sizes  as  figured.  Be 
careful  to  have  the  chimneys  and  fireplaces,  R. 


Fig.  104.     End  Elevation  and  Section. 

R.  S.,  directly  over  those  in  the  cellar.  The 
stairs  in  cellar  are  directly  under  the  stairs  as 
shown  in  this  plan.  The  projections  shown  at 
the  doors  are  steps. 


114 


AU(  HITKCTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


The  plan  shown  at  Fig.  102  is  for  the  attic 
story.  A  part  of  the  height  of  this  will  run  up 
into  the  roof  as  will  be  shown  in  section  Fig.  104. 
Here  the  chimneys  take  another  shape  and  are 
"drawn  in"  to  suit  the  flues.  The  partitions  are 
varied  and  the  stairs  land  in  the  hall  by  three 


is.  .SALsAks^-A 


^^a^%%%^%^%j%; 


-£**'t 


Fig.  105.  Fig.  106. 

winders.  The  windows  are  not  so  wide  as  those 
in  the  stories  below,  only  being  2  ft.  3  in.  in  the 
openings.  Measure  off  the  rooms  as  they  are 
figured,  making  the  partitions  of  2x4  in.  studs, 
and  marking  off  the  newel  and  rail  for  stairs  as 
shown. 

The  elevation  shown  at  Fig.  103  requires  but 
little  explanation,  as  it  is  simple  and  easily 
understood.  The  windows  are  3  feet  wide  in  the 
opening  and   5   ft.   3   in.  from   lintel  to  sill;  so, 


ARCHITECTURAL    DHAWIXIi    SELF    TAUGHT 


115 


keeping  these  figures  in  mind,  the  window  and 
sashes  may  be  laid  out  readily.  The  door,  from 
floor  to  lintel,  including  fanlight,  is  8  feet  high, 
by  3  ft.  3  in.  in  width.     The  rest  is  easy. 

A  part  of  the  end  elevation  and  a  sectional 
view  are  shown  at  Fig.  104.     In  the  section  the 


JJ! 


igr_  —        III  f  ,A    ^ 


Fig.  107. 

foundation  footing  is  shown  at  O;  the  projection 
of  door-steps  is  also  shown  on  the  ground  line. 

All  these  examples  should  first  be  made  in 
pencil,  after  which,  when  corrected,  they  may  be 
"filled  in"  with  ink. 

I  have  mentioned  something  regarding  "foot- 
ings" for  foundations  and  it  may  not  be  out  of 
place  at   this    point  to  say  something  more  of 


110 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 


them.     The  illustration  shown  at  Fig.  105  shows 
the  footing  and  a  portion  of  section  of  wall   that 

would  be  suitable  for 
/         /    /  /  /    /       the    brick     partition 

J^^>1 — 1   '    ■    '    j  \ — r-i running  through   the 

cellar  of  the  cottage 
we  have  just  dis- 
cussed. Here  is  a 
flat  stone  footing 
with  three  courses  of 
bricks  on  top  before 
/§;  the  regular  wall  com- 
mences. The  dotted 
lines  show  the  top  of 
cellar  floor  whether  it  be  plank  or  cement.  When 
the  whole  foundation  and  wall  are  to  be  of  stone, 
the  student  may  lay  it  off  in  accordance  with 
the  class  of  ma- 
sonry employed. 
One  method  of 
showing  square 
rubble  work  in 
a  wall,  is  exhib- 
ited at  Fig.  106. 


Fig.  108. 


Fig.  109. 


This  shows  a  section  of  the  wall,  through  B,  at  Fig. 
107.  Coursed  rubble  work  is  shown  at  Fig.  108, 
while  random  rubble  work  is  shown  at  Fig.  109. 


•VUCIHTIX'TUR.U.    1>RA\YI\<;    BELF   TAUGHT 


117 


In  this  style  of  masonry,  tin;  wall  is  brought  to  a 
level  throughout  its  length  at  about  every  12  or 
14  inches,  in  height,  so  as  to  form  courses  of 
that  depth.  This  wall  is  built  of  stones  rough 
from  the  quarry,  regardless  of  size  or  shape. 

Another  style  of  masonry  built  up  of  irregular 
stones  that  have  been  broken  up  from  large 
field  stones  is 
shown  at  Fig.  1 10. 
The  foundation 
and  corners  are 
built  up  of  squared 
stones.  This  kind 
of  work  is  some- 
times called  irreg- 
ular rubble,  rustic 
work,  or  field  stone 
masonry.     It   does 


Fig.  no. 


very  well  for  garden  walls,  retaining  walls,  cel- 
lar walls  for  small  buildings,  but  should  not  be 
used  where  great  strength  is  required. 

Block  course  masonry  is  where  the  courses  of 
stone  run  in  straight  horizontal  lines  as  shown 
at  Fig.  in.  Ashler  masonry  is  built  up  in 
courses  of  more  or  less  uniform  depth,  generally 
from  10  to  14  inches  deep,  ranging  with  the 
quoins  or  corners,  and  other  dressings;  it  goes 


118 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT 


by  different  names,  according  to  the  face  put 
dpon  the  stone — from  quarry-pitched,  or  rock 
ashler,  to  wrought  ashler.  A  sample  of  the  work 
is  shown  in  Fig.  112. 

There  are  many  other  forms  of  stonework, 
but  the  examples  given  are  quite  sufficient  for 
the  purposes  of  this  work,  and  other  forms  may 
well  be  left  to  the  trained  architect.     Perhaps  a 


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IPS, 

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II"  :;,;;.■■  ■ 

?«-JTi 

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fliliii  J 

iiiMiiii,i!lil!l,''b.- 

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Fig.   in. 

few  examples  of  brickwork  will  not  be  out  of 
place  at  this  point,  as  they  will  give  to  the 
student  a  slight  insight  into  the  manner  of 
'bonding,"  which  is  quite  an  important  matter  in 
brickbuilding. 

At  Fig.  113,  the  end  section  of  a  single  brick, 
or  9  inch  wall,  is  shown,  having  a  two  brick  or 
18  inch  footing.  This  will  be  easily  understood 
as  will  also  the  section  shown  at  Fig.  114.     The 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


119 


latter  shows  the  section  of  a  brick  and  a  halt 
wall,  known  generally  as  a  14  inch  wall.  The 
tooting     for    this    is    formed    of    three   bricks, 


w< 

life,     |i!!i>; £U 

IrjrJI 

i'^iP 

1 
,.i| 

# ! 

l.4S#:i/i 

#1K 

•r    if  ill 

IIP    ■*#>-! 

Hi'";;    ,,,• 
'lulu..  .  .iiiiiiiii 

!►  ti 

tfh.4 

IIP1     "" 

i;4jf%j 

Fig,  112. 

making  it  28  inches  wide.  The  footing  is 
diminished  until  it  is  only  two  bricks  wide  on 
which  the  actual  wall  commences.     Other  thick- 


Fig.  113.  Fig.  114. 

nesses  of  walls  are  formed  on  the  same  principle 

so  other  examples  of  this  kind  are  unnecessary. 

At  Fig.    115  I   show  two  plans  of  an   18  inch 


1*0 


Al«  HITECTURAL   DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


wall  which  illustrates  the  method  of  "bonding-" 
or  breaking  joints.  I  also  show  a  section  of  the 
wall  shaded. 

Before  proceeding  further,  it  may  be  well  to 
explain  the  meaning  of  the  term  "bond,"  or 
"bonding."     "Bond"  is  an  arrangement  of  bricks 


Plan  cf  'Courses 

l.S.S 

1 

Stction 


2-Brick  Wall. 


m®smm 
mmwm 


«***s.,JKaCaF 


Thai  qf Course* 

e.4.ff 

Fig.  115. 

or  stones  placed  in  juxtaposition  so  as  tc 
prevent  the  vertical  or  plumb  joint  between  any 
two  bricks  or  stones  falling  into  a  continuous 
straight  line  with  that  between  any  other  two. 
This  is  called  "breaking  joint,"  and  when  it  ic 
not  properly  carried  out,  that  is,  when  two  or 
more  joints  do  fall  into  the  same  line,  as  at  x  y 


ARCllITKCTl'UAL    DRAWING    SELF    TAUGHT 


121 


Fig  116,  they  form  what  is  called  a  straight 
jomt.  Straight  joints  split  up  and  weaken  the 
part  of  the  wall  in  which  they  occur,  and  should 
therefore  be  avoided.  A  good  bond  breaks  the 
vertical  joints,  both  in  the  length  and  thickness 
of  the  wall,  giving  the^jjricks  or  stones  a  good 
lap  over  one  another  its  both  directions,  so  as  to 
afford  as  much  hold  as  possible  between  the 
different  parts  of  the  wall. 


Fig.  1 1 6. 

A  further  effect  of  bond  is  to  distribute  the 
pressure  which  comes  upon  each  brick  over  a 
large  number  of  bricks  below  it.  Thus,  in  Fig. 
116,  there  is  a  proper  bond  among  the  bricks 
forming  the  face  of  the  wall,  and  the  pressure 
upon  the  brick  A  is  communicated  to  every  brick 
within  the  triangle  A,  B,  C. 

A  defective  bond,  either  in  brickwork  or 
masonry,  may  look  very  well  upon  the  face  of 
the  work,  as  in  Fig.  116,  where  the  bricks 
regularly  break    joint   vertically,   but   in     which 


122  ARCHITIXTURAL   DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT 

there  is  no  bond  whatever  across  the  thickness 
of  the  wall,  which,  it  will  be  seen,  is  really 
composed  of  two  distinct  slices  of  brickwork, 
each  \Y2  inches  thick,  and  having  no  connction 
with  one  another,  except  that  afforded  by  the 
mortar.  To  avoid  this  defect,  the  bricks  or 
stones  forming  a  wall  are  not  all  laid  in  the 
same  direction  as  in  Fig.  116,  but  some  are  laid 
parallel  to  the  length  of  the  wall  and  others  at 
right  angles  to  them,  so  that  the  length  of  one 
of  the  latter  overlaps  the  width  of  the  two  below 
it,  as  shown  in  Fig.  115.  In  this  figure,  a  wall  is 
shown  in  section  at  the  top,  two  bricks  in 
thickness.  The  second  diagram  shows  a  plan  of 
the  courses,  2,  4,  6,  as  numbered  in  the  section, 
while  the  lower  diagram  shows  the  plan  of  the 
courses,  as  they  are  laid  in  the  wall,  of  the 
courses  numbered  1,  3,  5,  in  the  section. 

When  bricks  are  laid  lengthwise  in  the  wall, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  117,  they  are  called  "stretchers"; 
when  they  are  laid  across  the  wall,  as  in  Fig. 
118,  they  are  called  "headers."  "Stretchers" 
are  bricks  or  stones  which  lie  parallel  to  the 
length  of  the  wall,  those  in  the  exterior  of  the 
work  showing  one  side  in  the  face  of  the  wall. 

"Headers"  are  bricks  or  stones  whose  lengths 
lie  across  the  thickness  of  the  walls,  the  ends,  or 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  123 

"heads,"  of  those  thin  walls  like  the  diagram,  or 
in  the  outside  of  thick  walls,  being  visible  on  the 
face. 

If   the    student    copies    these    examples   and 
thinks   as   he   draws,  grasping  the  reasons  why 


Fig.  117.  Fig.  118. 

the  bricks  are  laid  in  the  manner  shown,  he  will 
accomplish  two  purposes,  learning  to  draw  and 
acquiring  a  constructive  knowledge. 

There  are  a  variety  of  "bonds"  in  brickwork, 
all  of  which  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  archi- 
tectural student  to  be  familiar  with,  and  I  pro- 
pose to  offer  a  few  examples  for  practice  and  to 
explain  them  at  the  same  time. 

The  bond  chiefly  used  in  this  country  for 
ordinary  work  is  called  running  "bond."  This 
consists  of  three,  four  or  five  running  courses  of 
stretchers,  and  then  a  course  of  headers,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  119,  where  there  are  three  courses 
of  stretchers  and  one  course  of  headers.  The 
small  portions  of  bricks,  or  "bats,"  designated  by 


1*4 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


XXXX,  arc  termed  closers,  and  are  required  to 
fill  out  the  courses. 

In  English  'bond"  there  is  in  the  face  wall  a 
course  of  headers,  then  a  course  of  stretchers, 
and  so  on  all  the  way.  This  arrangement  is  for 
the  front  of  the  wall,  and  in  the  thick  walls  the 
bricks  are  made  to  join  in  to  the  best  advantage. 


M    1    1    1    1    1    1    1    1    V 

1         1        1        1         l\ 

1                 1         1   '    \ 

W    1    1    1    1    1    1    1    1     1 

1        i        1        1         1        1 

1                 1                 1       ) 

H                                1  V 

■       •       if       if 

111                       I 

1                                  \ 

W   1  1   1  1  1   I   1  1        i 

Fig.  119. 

Thus,  an  English  bond  nine-inch  wall  will  have 
for  each  course  of  stretchers  two  rows  side  by 
side,  breaking  joint  horizontally.  The  joints  in 
the  inside  courses  should  be  one-half  the  width 
of  the  brick  from  the  vertical  joints  of  the 
stretchers  above  and  below.  A  fourteen  inch 
wall  in  English  bond  is  shown  at  Eig.  120,  which 
represents    four    courses    in   elevation,   and   the 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF    rAUGHT  1J.> 

second  course  and  the  top  course,  from  the  top, 
in  plan.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  in  this  wall 
to  have  a  row  of  headers  back  of  the  stretchers, 
as  if  they  were  all  stretchers  in  this  course,  there 
would  be  a  mortar  joint  all  the  way  up  through 


I 


i    i    i    i    i 


i    i    i    i 


ELEVATION 

PLAN 

OF  COURSE 

A 

PLAN  OF  COURSE  B 

Fig.  120. 

the  wall  along  the  line  A  B.  There  are  shown 
two  ways  to  make  the  headers  in  any  course; 
break  joints  with  the  stretchers  in  the  same 
course.  In  the  plan  of  course  A  at  the  left- 
hand  end  there  will  be  seen  a  closer  X,  which  is 
half  of    a   brick    split    lengthwise.     This    piece, 


126 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


9x2^x2^,  being  put  in  next  to  the  last  stretcher. 
In  the  plan  of  course  B  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
same  thing  is  done  by  using  three-quarter  bricks 
laid  flatwise. 

The  example  shown   at   121   exhibits  several 


1  1     1 1        1  wy~>  1      1  1      1         1 

1     11    11  Avy  r?v  1     1 1    11 

11       11     s\  \  W  /  /  x  1   1       1   1        r 

1       1  1      J 

\      1  1         \ 

II          MA 

?\\        III 

1  1  Ac 

X\    1     1          II 

ll         AO 

r_f\         ||            | 

1           1   JS/j 

/\y\  1     11 

1     1      N,V 

X  S\        \          1 

1       lrp£ 

rcCAi      1   1 

<X_J\\   1        1 

/ — 1  if/, 

\\sa     1  1 

1    1  /- —  yy 

^w$y/$^): 

wp   \i  1      1 

vvrT"        '    1 

l    il        // 

\vH— 1  1        1 

1          1    1 

s 

11      11 

,'     ',    .     -1 

1 

1         I    I 

w 

- 

1  1      11 

1     1        11 

11      1  1       1 

1          1    1 

1      1      F     1       1 

11        ll 

II            II               1 

l          l 

1      1             1       1 

11        11 

II            II              1 

1          1    1 

II            II 

11        11 

1    1            II              1. 

1         1     1 

11            1      ' 

11      ,ii 

II            1     !  .            1 

Fig.  121. 

styles  of  laying  bricks;  C  shows  the  arch  A, 
herring  bone  filling  over  a  window,  S,  a  stone 
sill,  F  the  general  brickwork  and  W  the  window 
opening.  This  is  a  good  example  to  draw, 
though  it  is  not  by  any  means  good  architecture. 
These  examples  are  sufficient  for  my  purpose, 


A&CHITECTURAL   DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT  127 

and  should  the  student  desire  to  know  more 
about  the  bonding  of  brickwork,  he  may  procure 
a  copy  of  a  manual  on  brick  and  stone  work  I 
have  in  preparation,  and  which  will  be  published 
by  Drake  &  Co.  shortly. 

DRAWING    ARCHES 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  the  draftsman 
should  know  how  to  draw  the  forms  of  arches 
that  are  in  common  use,  and  in  order  to  instruct 


Fig.  123. 


him  on  this  point,  the  following  examples  are 
submitted  for  him  to  study  and  work  out.  The 
arch  shown  at  Fig.  122  is  simply  a  semicircular 
one,  and  the  simple  line  of  arch  is  drawn  from 
a  center  as  shown.  When  an  arch  of  this  form 
is  used  for  brick  or  stone  work  as  shown  at  Fig. 
123,  a  new  set  of  conditions  arise,  as  the  joints 
of  the  bricks  or  stone  must  be  shown  so  that  the 
right  bevels  or  angles  may  be  given  them. 
These  joints  all  radiate  to  the  center  of  the  arch 
as  shown.     It  may  not  be  out  of  place  at  this 


128  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 


PLATE   8. 

This  plate  shows  the  outside  of  a  plain  window 
frame,  a  door  frame,  corner  board,  and  a 
sectional  elevation  of  sash  and  frame.  This  is  a 
very  simple  plate,  and  the  young  draftsman  will 
find  no  difficulty  in  re-drawing  these  details 


Plrte.8 


Out   J)id&     Frames    and      C 


k 


7Z2L 


l_i 


\  I 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT  129 

point  to  give  a  description  of  the  arch,  with  the 
terms  used  in  connection  therewith,  and,  I  may 
say,  the  definitions  given  apply  to  all  other 
arches  as  well  as  to  the  one  in  Fig.  123: 

(1)  The  SPAN  of  an  arch  is  the  distance 
between  the  points  of  support,  which  is  generally 
the  width  of  the  opening  to  be  covered,  as  A  B. 
These  points  are  called  the  springing  points; 
the  mass  against  which  the  arch  rests  is  called 
the  ABUTMENT. 

(2)  The  RISE,  HEIGHT  OR  VERSED 
SINE  of  an  arch  is  the  distance  from  C  to  D. 

(3)  The  SPRINGING  LINE  of  an  arch  is  the 
line  A  B,  being  a  horizontal  line  drawn  across 
the  tops  of  the  support  where  the  arch 
commences. 

(4)  The  CROWN  of  an  arch  is  the  highest 
point,  as  D. 

(5)  VOUSSOIRS  is  the  name  given  to  the 
stones  forming  the  arch. 

(6)  The  KEYSTONE  is  the  center  or  upper- 
most voussoir,  D.  so  called  because  it  is  the  last 
stone  set,  and  wedges  or  keys  the  whole 
together.  Keystones  are  frequently  allowed  to 
project  from  the  faces  of  the  wall  and  in  some 
buildings  are  very  elaborately  carved. 

(7)  The  INTRADOS  or  SOFFIT  of  an  arch 


130  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT 

is  the  under  side  of  the  voussoirs  forming  the 
curve. 

(8)  The  EXTRADOS  or  BACK  is  the  upper 
side  of  the  voussiors. 

(9)  The  THRUST  of  an  arch  is  the  tendency 
which  all  arches  have  to  descend  in  the  middle, 
and  to  overturn  or  thrust  asunder  the  points  of 
support.  The  amount  of  the  thrust  of  an  arch 
depends  on  the  proportions  between  the  rise  and 
the  span;  that  is  to  say,  the  span  and  weight  to 
be  supported  being  definite,  the  thrust  will  be 
diminished  in  proportion  as  the  rise  of  the  arch 
is  increased,  and  the  thrust  will  be  increased  in 
proportion  as  the  crown  of  the  arch  is  lowered. 

(10)  The  JOINTS  of  an  arch  are  the  lines 
formed  by  the  adjoining  faces  of  the  voussoirs; 
these  should  generally  radiate  to  some  definite 
point,  and  each  should  be  perpendicular  to  a 
tangent  to  the  curve  of  each  joint.  In  all  curves 
composed  of  arcs  of  circles,  a  tangent  to  the 
curve  at  any  point  will  be  perpendicular  to  a 
radius  drawn  from  the  center  of  the  circle 
through  that  point,  consequently  the  joints  in 
all  such  arches  should  radiate  to  the  center  of 
the  circle  of  which  the  curve  forms  a  part. 

(11)  The  BED  of  an  arch  is  the  top  of  the 
abutment;  the  shape  of  the  bed  depends  on  the 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT  131 

quality   of  the   curve,   and   is   explained    in    the 
diagrams. 

(i2)  A  RAMPART  ARCH  is  one  in  which  the 
springing  lines  are  not  on  the  same  level 

(13)  A  STRAIGHT  ARCH  or,  as  it  is  more 
properly  called,  a  plat-band,  is  formed  of  a  row 
of  wedge  shaped  bricks  or  stones  of  equal 
depth  placed  in  a  horizontal  line;  the  upper 
ends  of  the  pieces  being  broader  than  the  lower, 
prevents  them  from  falling  down. 

(14)  ARCHES  are  named  from  the  shape  of 
the  curve  of  the  underside,  and  are  either  simple 
or  complex.  The  simple  curves  may  be  defined 
as  those  that  are  described  from  one  center, 
as  Fig.  122,  or  by  a  continuous  motion,  as  the 
ellipse,  parabola,  hyperbola,  cycloid,  and 
epicycloid;  and  complex  arches  are  those 
which  are  described  from  two 

or  more  fixed  centers,  as  many 
of  the  Gothic  and  Moorish 
arches  are. 

Fig.   124  shows  the  manner 
of  drawing  a  segmental  arch 
The  center  of  this  is  below  the  springing  lines. 
A  segmental    arch,  drawn    out    for    brickwork; 
is  shown  at  Fig.  125,  in  which  the  joint  lines  are 
marked  off. 


132 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


A  segmental  arch  drawn  from  two  centers  is 
shown  at  Fig.  126.  The  centers  are  shown  so 
that  the  student  will  have  no  trouble  in  describ- 


es 

Fig.    125 


•  '  4 

Fig.    126. 


ing  it.  The  joints  for  brick  or  stone  work  may 
be  laid  out  around  this  arch,  by  using  the  centers 
as  fixed  points  and  running  radial  lines  through 
the  curved  lines. 

The  diagram  shown  at  Fig.  127  illustrates  a 


V 

Fig.   127 


Fig.   128 


Tudor  arch.  It  is  struck  from  three  centers  as 
shown.  It  is  sometimes  called  an  elliptical 
Gothic    arch,    and    may    be    struck    as    follows: 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  133 

Divide  the  span,  ad,  Fig.  128,  into  three  equal 
parts  by  the  points,  ef.  From  a,  with  radius  a,j, 
describe  an  arc,  and  from  e,J,  and  d,  describe 
similar  arcs,  which  intersect  at  ij.  Now  bisect 
the  span,  ad,  and  raise  a  perpendicular  to  /. 
Draw  a  line  through  it  and  jc,  and  produce 
these  lines.  With  compasses  from  f  with  radius, 
fd,  describe  arc  to  j,  and  from  e,  with  the  same 
radius,  describe  a  similar  arc  to  nh.  Then  from 
/with  radius  ij,  describe  arc,  ji,  and  from /same 
radius,  the  curve  hi,  when  the  interior  curve  of 
the  arch  will  be  completed,  the  remainder  of  the 
arch  being  set  out  in  the  usual  manner. 

The  elliptical  arch  can  best  be  described  with 
the  trammel  shown  at  Fig.  69,  or  writh  a  string 
as  described  at  Fig.  68,  but  the  joints  for  brick 
or  stone  work  must  be  obtained  by  a  method 
very  different  from  that  illustrated  for  circular 
arches.  To  obtain  the  correct  lines  for  the 
elliptical  arch  shown  at  Fig.  129,  we  must  pro- 
ceed as  follows:  Let  ZZ  be  the  foci,  and  B  a 
point  on  the  intrados  where  a  joint  is  required; 
from  ZZ  draw  lines  to  B,  bisect  the  angle  at  B 
by  a  line  drawn  through  the  intersecting  arcs 
D  produced  for  the  joint  to  F.  Joints  at  1  and 
2  are  found  in  the  same  manner.  The  joints  for 
the  opposite  side  of  the  arch  may  be  transferred 


134 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING  SELF  TAUGHT 


as  shown.     The  semi-axes  of  the  ellipse,  H  G, 
G  K,  are  in  the  same  ratio  as  G  E  to  G  A.     The 

K 


voussoirs  near  the  springing  line  of  the  arch  are 
thus  increased  in  size  for  greater  strength. 
The  diagram  shown  at  Fig.  130  shows  a  lancet 


a—i 


Fig.  130. 


Fig.  131. 


arch.  This  is  drawn  by  placing  the  centers  of 
the  curves  outside  the  figure  as  at  G  and  F.  E 
O,  show  the  width  of  the  opening,  and  H  J,  the 
height. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT  135 

A  completed  lancet  arch  is  shown  at  Fig.  131, 
the  radial  or  joint  lines  being  exhibited.  These 
lines  are  drawn  from  the  centers  in  all  cases. 

The  diagram  shown  at  Fig.  132  represents  an 
equilateral,  Gothic  arch.  This  is  drawn  with  the 
compasses  set  to  the  width  of  the  opening,  one 
leg  being  placed  at  the  junction  of  the  springing 
line  when  the  other  leg  describes  the  curve  of 


Fig.   132.  Fig.  133. 


one  side.     The   same  process  forms  the  other 
side  of  the  arch. 

The  completed  equilateral  arch  is  shown  at 
Fig-  l32»  with  the  method  of  laying  out  the 
curves.  The  centers  being  X  and  Y.  As  before 
stated,  the  joints  in  all  these  arches  should  be 
struck  at  right  angles  to  tangents  of  the  curve, 
which  in  the  case  of  arcs  of  circles  will  cause  the 
joints  to  radiate  to  the  center  from  which  the 
curve  is  struck.  There  are  cases,  however, 
when  this  rule  cannot  be  followed,  as  take  the 
^ist  illustration  Fig.  133,  for  instance,  when  the 


<36  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

bonding  is  not  what  a  good  workman  would 
desire,  yet  it  is  better  than  the  bonding  shown 
in  Fig.  134,  though  perhaps  not  so  handsome; 
that,  however,  is  a  matter  of  taste.  The  employ- 
ment of  the  method  shown  at  Fig.  133  gets  rid 
of  the  small  angle  closers  which  show  in  the 
crown  of  Fig.  134.  To  get  the  lines  properly,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  133,  run  up  the 
two  dotted  lines  at  an  angle 
of  fifty  degrees,  with  the 
springing  line  X  Y,  on  each 
side  of  the  arch.     These   are 

produced   to  cut   through  the 
Fig.  134  & 

curve  lines  at  C  and  D. 

The  joints  of  the  arch  from  X  to  C  are 
radiated  to  Y,  those  from  D  to  Y  to  X,  and 
those  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  arch  to  the 
intersection  of  the  two  inner  lines  at  B,  whereby 
the  bricks  at  the  crown  are  eased  off.  In 
pointed  or  two-centered  arches,  other  than 
equilateral,  the  same  method  may  be  followed, 
the  angles  of  the  dotted  lines  being  greater  or 
less  as  the  circumstances  of  the  case  may  require. 

In  setting  out  gauged  arches  care  must  be 
taken  to  draw  first  a  middle  or  "key"  brick  at 
the  crown  of  the  arch,  the  object  being  to  pro- 
vide a  brick  to  resist  the  increased  strain  at  the 


AUCHITfcXJTUHAL    UKAW'l.NCi    SELF   TAUGHT 


187 


Fig.   135. 


point;  and  secondly,  to  have  the  effect  of  pro- 
ducing an  equal  number  of  bricks  in  the  arch 
excluding  the  key,  so  that  it  may 
be  finished  the  same  on  each  side. 
The  next  arch  is  drawn  upon 
the  same  principles  as  the  ogee 
curve  shown  in  Fig.  135,  and  with 
the  construction  lines  given  re- 
quires no  further  explanation.  It  is  defective  as 
a  scientific  arch,  but  occurs  often  in  the  Deco- 
rated Period,  towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  After  that  period  the  arches  were 
made  flatter,  examples  of  which  are  the  seg- 
mental, or  two-centered,  and  the  Tudor,  or 
four-centered,  arches. 

To  describe  an  equilateral  ogee  arch,  like 
Fig.  136,  proceed  as  follows:  Make  YZ  the 
given  span;  make  YX  equal  YZ,  bisect  YZ  in  A; 
on  A  as  center,  with  A  Y  as  ra- 
dius, describe  the  arcs  Y  B  and 
Z  C;  on  B  and  X  as  centers 
describe  the  arcs  B  D  and  X  D, 
and  on  C  and  X  as  centers  de- 
scribe the  arcs  C  E  and  X  E; 
on  E  and  D  as  centers  describe 
the  arcs  B  X  and  C  X. 

The  flat  ogee  arch  shown  at  Fig.  137  requires 


£.--- 


KAJ 


\ 


Fig.  136. 


138 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


some  little  different  treatment  to  the  previous 
one.  To  obtain  the  proper  curves  and  centers 
for  this  style  of  arch  proceed  as  follows:     Let 

A  B  be  the  outside  width 
of  the  arch,  anci  C  D  the 
height,  and  let  A  E  be  the 
breadth  of  the  rib. 

Bisect  A  B   in   C,  and 

erect    the    perpendicular 

C  D;  bisect  A  C  in  F,  and 

draw  F  J  parallel  to  C  D. 

Through   D  draw  J   K  parallel  to  A  B,  and 

make  D  K  equal  to  D  J. 

From  F  set  off  F  G  equal  to  A  E,  the  breadth 
of  the  rib,  and  make  C  H  equal  to  CG. 

Join  G  J  and  H  K;  then  G  and  H  will  be  the 
centers  for  drawing  the  lower  portion  of  the 
arch,  J  and  K  will  be  the  centers  for  describing 
the  upper  portion,  and  the  contrary  curves  will 
meet  in  the  lines  G  J  and  H  K. 

This  style  of  arch  is  seldom  used  in  substantial 
work  other  than  in  Gothic  architecture;  the 
carpenter,  however,  often  makes  use  of  it  in 
porch,  veranda  and  arbor  work,  and  sometimes 
in  grille  work,  so  it  is  well  to  have  a  knowledge 
of  it. 

Another    arch,   not    in   common    use,    is    the 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  139 

horseshoe  or  Moorish  arch;  two  examples  are 
shown  at  Figs.  138  and  139.  In  the  first  the 
curve  is  struck  from  a  center  situated  above  the 
springing  line.     This  is  said  to  be  the  strongest 


Fig.  138.  Fig.  139. 


of  all  arches  when  properly  constructed  and  is 
often  employed  for  tunneling  and  other  heavy 
work  where  great  resisting  strength  is  required. 

The  figure  shown  at  139  is  sometimes  called  a 
Gothic  horseshoe  arch  because  of  its  being 
pointed.  It  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  last,  but 
is  struck  from  two  centers,  I  and  J.  The  special 
peculiarities  of  these  arches  is,  that  they  are  nar- 
rowed in  on  the  springing  lines,  which  gives  to 
them  a  pleasing  appearance. 

Often  arches  are  formed  by  having  them  two 
or  more  bricks  deep,  or  they  may  be  rough  and 
turned  in  half-brick  rings,  4^2  inches  thick,  as 
shown  at  hh  in  Fig.  140.  In  arches  of  quick 
curve,  with  not  more  than  2  or  3  feet  radius, 
this  method  is  absolutely  necessary  to  prevent 


140 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


very  large  points  at  the  extrados.  In  the  section 
of  portions  of  small  arches  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration, of  which  one  ww  is  turned,  in  nine  inch 
rings  consisting  of  headers.     It  wall  be  seen  that 


Fig.  140. 


the  mortar  joints  in  this  are  much  wider  at  the 
top  than  those  of  the  portion  hh,  built  in  rings 
half  a  brick  in  thickness.  The  line  of  joints  in 
both  these  examples  are  radial,  all  being  drawn 
from  the  center  point. 

The  most  common — so-called  arch — is  what  is 
termed  "gauged  straight  arches,"  and  with  these, 
in  brickwork,  the  draftsman  will  have  the  most 
to  deal,  and  I  purpose  showing  him  several 
examples.  Such  arches  are  in  very  common  use, 
and  are  generally  12  inches,  or  four  courses  of 
brickwork,  in  depth. 

The  sommering  or  splay  of  the  bricks  depends 


ARCHITECTURAL    DUAWIMi    SELF   TA1  Gin 


141 


Fig.  141 


upon  the  angle  given  to  the  skewbacks  or 
springing*,  and  varies  with  the  distance  of  each 
voussoir  from 
the  springing. 

The  skew- 
backs  are  gen- 
erally inclined 
at  6o°  from  the 
horizontal,  and  are  struck  by  prolonging  the  sides 
of  an  equilateral  triangle,  as  shown  on  Pig.  142. 
The  joints  give  a  better  appearance  when 
horizontal  as  at  B,  Fig.  141;  but  to  save  labor 
they  are  frequently  formed  as  at  A,  and  care- 
fully concealed  by  rubbing  over,  false  horizontal 
joints    being   marked    on    the    face,   though   in 

course  of  time 
the  true  joints 
are  sure  to  show 
up  and  expose 
the  sham. 

The     arch 

shown     at     Fig. 

142  is  sometimes 

\/  called   a  French 

K&  ,42-  or    Dutch    arch. 

It  is  sometimes  used  by  builders  when  intended 

to  be  plastered  or   covered  over.     Such  arches 


142 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 


are  unreliable,  and  the  draftsman  should  never 
make  them  if  intended  to  be  built,  unless  they 
are  to  be  built  up  in  good  Portland  cement 
mortar.  The  joints  may  be  arranged  as  shown 
at  A  or  at  B;  if,  as  at  A,  only  whole  bricks  should 
be  used. 

Sometimes,  in  building  arches  of  this  kind,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  "plug"  the  brickwork  as 
shown   at   PPPP,   Fig.   143,  for  the    purpose   of 


Fig.  143. 


attaching  finished  work  to  them  by  screws  or 
other  devices,  and  the  draftsman  must  note  this 
on  his  drawings  in  order  to  save  future  trouble. 
The  manner  of  forming  the  skewbacks  is  shown 
in  this  illustration,  at  o  o;  the  angle  of  this  line 
should  be  about  sixty  degrees. 

In  placing  in  arches  of  this  kind,  there  must 
always  be  timber  or  concrete  lintel  behind  the 
face  bricks  to  carry  the  wall,  and  over  this 
lintel,  there  should   be    a  relieving  arch    built. 


AKCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF    TAUGHT 


1+3 


This  latter  arch  is  generally  built  up  roughly 
unless  it  is  intended  to  carry  a  great  weight,  then 
care  must  be  taken  in  its  construction. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  arches  it  may 
be  well  to  exhibit  some  examples  in  stone,  and 
should  the  student  never  be  called  upon  to 
prepare    drawings    for    such    work,    their   con- 


Fig.  144. 


struction  on  paper  will  make  good  practice. 
The  example  shown  at  Fig.  144  is  a  very 
common  one  in  stonework  and  shows  how  the 
style  of  work  is  prepared.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  joints  are  generally  radial,  while  horizontal 
joints  are  formed  to  receive  the  stone  above. 

Another   style   of    opening   in    stonework    is 
shown   at   Fig.    145,   where    the    head    of    the 


144  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


PLATE   9. 

Plate  9  shows  three  examples  of  inside  finish — 
a  door,  a  window,  and  sliding  door  —  opening 
with  trim.  These  like  the  other  examples  shown 
in  Fig.  8  are  easily  understood. 


<=■ 

~~r                   &. 

T 

1 

J 1 

_j 

II ' " 

Plate. 

1 



1 
1 

S- 

,A\ 

1*1 

] 


architectural   drawing  self  taught 


145 


window    or  door   is   flat.     There   is  a   relieving 
arch   thrown  over  the  lintel  or  cap  to  carry  the 

- j 1 r=zr"UBBLE  ARCH 


Fig.  145- 

weight  over  to  the  jambs.  The  face  of  the 
window  is  all  of  dressed  stone,  while  the  walls 
are  formed  of  irregular  stones. 


Another  style  of  work  is  shown  at  Fig.  146, 
where  the  walls  are  formed  of  square  stones  laid 


140  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT 


Fig.  147. 


& ^ 


up  in  irregular  courses,  and  the  relieving  arch 
ends  against  a  regularly  prepared  skewback. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  147 

At  Fig.  147  are  grouped  some  of  the  principal 
forms  of  arch  shown  in  architecture.  At  A  is 
the  semicircular  arch,  describing  half  a  circle. 
B  is  a  form  of  elliptical  arch,  not  unfrequently 
employed.  It  is  not,  in  reality,  elliptical  at  all, 
save  in  appearance,  being  a  segmental  arch,  or 
one  formed  by  the  segment  of  a  circle,  which  is 
struck  from  below  the  springings.  The  elliptical 
arch  C  is  formed  of  several  circles.  The  stilted 
arch  D  rises  from  points  below  its  center.  The 
Gothic  architects  employed  various  forms  of  the 
pointed  arch  at  different  epochs.  E  is  what  is 
usually  termed  an  equilateral  arch,  so  called 
because  the  two  springing  points  and  the  crown 
of  the  arch  form  an  equilateral  or  equal-sided 
triangle.  F,  the  lancet  arch,  is  more  pointed 
than  the  preceding.  It  is  struck  from  outside 
the  springings,  and  has  the  outline  of  an  isosceles 
or  equal-legged  triangle,  of  which  the  base  is,  of 
course,  less  than  the  sides.  G,  the  "drop"  arch, 
in  contradistinction  to  the  last  example,  is  less 
pointed  than  the  equilateral  arch.  It  is  struck 
from  within  the  springings,  and  has  a  triangular 
outline,  in  which  the  base  is  longer  than  the 
sides.  H,  the  "segmental  Gothic  arch",  is 
composed  of  two  segments  of  a  circle,  meeting 
obtusely.     I,  the  "ogee"  arch,  was  introduced  at 


148  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

a  late  period  of  Gothic  architecture,  and  is 
struck  from  four  points.  K,  the  "Tudor,"  arch 
prevailed  during  the  close  of  the  Gothic,  and 
takes  its  name  from  the  then  ruling  family  of 
the  English  dynasty.  It  has  a  much  flattened 
arch,  low  mouldings,  and  a  profusion  of  panel- 
ings.  I  now  come  to  arches  of  the  form  that  are 
designated  "foiled"  arches,  imitating  the  foils 
or  leaflets  of  a  leaf,  which  are  generally  divided 
into  three  varieties,  viz.,  trefoils,  cinquefoils,  and 
polyfoils.  L,  M,  N  exhibit  three  forms  of  the 
"trefoil"  or  three-lobed  arch,  O  is  an  example  of 
the  cinquefoil  or  five-lobed  arch,  and  P,  one  of 
the  "polyfoil"  or  many-lobed  arch.  The  latter 
form  is  principally  confined  to  Romanesque  and 
Saracenic  architecture,  and  is  especially  met 
with  in  Moorish  and  Saracenic  buildings.  The 
latter  people  also  employed  a  peculiar  arch, 
special  to  themselves,  and  generally  styled  the 
"horseshoe"  arch,  shown  at  Q.  This  is  only 
found  in  Arabic  or  Moorish  buildings.  The  so- 
called  "flat"  arch,  R,  is  in  reality  not  an  arch  at 
all,  though  the  voussoirs  are  so  arranged  as  to 
radiate  from  a  center,  and  are  laid  in  parallel 
courses.  This  arch  is  employed  in  doorways, 
windows,  and  fireplaces  of  buildings,  and  the 
intrados   are  generally  supported  by   a   bar   of 


URCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  14!) 

iron  or  beam  of  wood.  In  some  very  ancient 
examples  the  voussoirs  are  cut  to  a  peculiar 
form,  with  the  idea  of  securing  great  stability 
and  strength,  as  shown  at  Fig.  148,  which  is 
copied  from  the  fireplace  of  Coningsbergh 
Castle. 

I  think  the  foregoing  illustrations  of  arches 
and  the  accompanying  description  are  quite 
sufficient   for   my   purpose,   as    the    student   can 


ZJ 


-i^\W  77M^ 


Fig.  148. 

gather  from  them  all  he  will  immediately  require 
to  know,  and  after  a  thorough  mastery  of  these 
examples  he  will  have  no  difficulty  in  obtaining 
a  higher  knowledge  from  the  thousand  and  one 
other  sources  that  are  available,  should  he  so 
desire. 

SOME    MISCELLANEOUS    PRACTICE 

Suppose  it  is  necessary   to  show  a  door  and 
casings  in  a  brick  wall,  with  jamb  linings,  grounds 


150 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT 


and  other  finishings,  we  commence  by  first 
laying  out  the  plan  as  shown  at  Fig.  149;  we 
decide  upon  the  height  and  width  of  door,  also 


Fig.  149. 

style  of  door,  and  finish,  and  work  to  scale 
accordingly.  In  this  case  I  show  an  elevation, 
Fig.    151,    and    plan    respectively   with    a    four 

paneled    door     with 


jamb  and  soffit  lining. 
Fig.  150  shows  a  por- 
tion of  the  plan  en- 
larged. 

In  this  case  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  door 
is  hung  to  the  jamb 
lining  itself;  the  lat- 
ter is  attached  to  a 
backing  ba  dovetailed  in  between  the  framed 
grounds,  and  secured  to  wood  bricks  in  the  wall, 
the  edges  of  which  may  be  seen  in  section 
Fig.  152. 

In  some  cases  the  grounds  are  tongued  into 


Fig.  150. 


\RCHITECT1iRAT    DRAWING    sKi.f"    .  aUGHT 


151 


the    jamb     linings,    but     this     is    very    seldom 
done. 


Fig.  151. 


Fig.  152. 


The  jamb  linings  go  right  through  the  depth 
of  the  opening,  and  on  one  side  of  the  wall  have 
their  edges    rebated    to    receive  the   door;    the 


152 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


Fig.  153- 


edges  on  the  other 
side  of  the  wall 
being  (in  superior 
work)  similarly  re- 
bated  to  corre- 
spond. 

The  soffit  lining 
is  secured  to  cra- 
dling or  backing  c, 
consisting  of  rough 
stuff  attached  to 
the  under  side  of 
the  lintels  over  the 
opening. 

Of  course  the 
doorway  might  be 
spanned  by  a 
rough  brick  arch, 
or  by  a  concrete 
beam,  w  i  t  h  o  u  i 
wood  lintels,  i  n 
which  case  the 
framing  would  be 
secured  to  plugs 
let  into  the  arch 
or  beam. 

T  h  e      enlarged 


AIU'IIITKCTUKAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


1.58 


plan  in  Fig.  150  differs  slightly  from  Fig.  149, 
inasmuch  as  a  smaller  architrave  is  shown  on 
the  inside  of  the  doorway.  The  paneling  of  the 
soffit  lining  is  often  shown  in  dotted  lines  upon 
the  plan  of  the  doorway. 

The  whole  ele- 
vation of  one  side 
of  the  door  is 
shown  at  Fig.  151, 
and  a  section  is 
shown  at  Fig.  152, 
with  a  portion  of 
the  jamb  lining  re- 
moved. This  latter 
is  a  good  scheme 
as  it  shows  the 
workman  exactly 
what  is  required  of 
him. 

The  illustration 
shown  at  Fig.  153  shows  a  vertical  section  oi 
a  window  and  frame  for  a  brick  house.  It  is 
purposely  cut  short  in  order  to  show  all  the 
parts.  It  will  be  readily  understood,  as  WL 
stands  for  wood  lintel,  b  j  for  bottom  joints, 
ib  inside  blinds,  etc.  Fig.  154  shows  the  same  win- 
dow in  f  ievation  with  shutters  or  blinds  in  sight. 


Fig.  154 


154 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


The  plan  is  shown  at  Fig.  155.  This  shows 
the  shutters  box  splayed  from  the  wall.  The 
dotted  lines  show  the  shutters  partly  folded. 

In  redrawing  these  examples  the  student 
should  make  them  at  least  twice  or  three  times 
the  size  shown    herewith;    this  can   readily  be 


| 

£^$£§ 

•^v-N 

'•S'v-'-'/S"'-^^ 

21 

D 

•X."-S"'*;*>V\--V»; 

Wf 

Www 


7**-g  r: 


Fig.  155- 

done  by  taking  the  distances  on  a  compass  and 
transferring  to  the  paper  on  which  the  drawing 
is  to  be  made.  If  the  drawing  is  to  be  twice  the 
size  of  the  original,  then  space  off  the  distance 
of  each  feature  twice,  if  to  be  three  times  the 
distance,  then  space  off  three  times,  and  so  on 
for  other  sizes.  By  following  this  advice,  the 
student   will   become    familiar   with    his   instru- 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING  SELF  TAUGHT 


153 


ments  and  with  the  various  kinds  of  work. 
Indeed,  this  work  is  intended,  besides  being  a 
teacher  of  primary  drawing,  to  be  a  helper  in 
obtaining  some  knowledge  of  architectural  con- 
struction as  well;  for, 
it  is  supposed,  it  will 
fall  chiefly  into  the 
hands  of  young  stu- 
dents,  apprentices, 
and  fellows  who  have 
not  had  a  fairly  good 
opportunity  of  ac- 
quiring a  knowledge 
of  either  drawing  or 
construction,  but  who 
are  desirous  of  learn- 
ing what  they  can  of 
both,  during  their 
spare  moments. 

The  plates,  follow- 
ing the  general  illus- 
trations, will  place  before  the  student  many 
things  not  as  yet  touched  upon,  but  I  have 
deemed  it  necessary  to  show  a  few  miscellaneous 
items  both  for  practice,  and  because  of  their  con- 
structive value  to  the  young  builder. 

The  door  and  casing  shown  in   Fig.  156  is  a 


Fig.  156. 


156 


AK<   IIITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


good  example  for  drawing;  its  proportions  are 
nearly  perfect,  and  the  style  is  modern.  This  is 
an  inside  door  as  shown  by  the  base. 

The  sliding  doors  shown  at  Fig.  157  are  very 
nearly  built  in  the  same  style  as  the  single  door 


Hig.  157 


shown  in  Fig.  156.  These  may  be  drawn  to  any 
special  scale,  or  they  may  be  transferred  from 
the  illustration.  I  show  a  section  of  the  wall 
into  which  the  sliding  doors  run  at  Fig.  158. 
This  drawing  shows  the  method  of  construction. 


ARCHII  l.<    I  I   i;\l.    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


157 


the  end-wood  of  the  studding  being  seen;  also, 
the  linings  to  protect  the  pocket. 

The  illustration,  as  Fig.  159,  shows  a  method 


___ 


POCKET 


Fig.  158. 

of  adjusting  the  joint  at  the  junction  of  the 
doors.  The  section  shows  clearly  how  the  joint 
is  hidden  from  view. 

A  section  and  elevation 
of    trim    for     a    door    is    j 
shown    in    Fig.     160.      In 
this    drawing    the    door, 
the    step,   the    stud,   the 

plaster  and  the  trim  are  shown  in  place,  and  at 
the  bottom,  the  plinth  block  and  base  are  also 


v|f^ 


-tm-JL-.-,  ,  ,r 


Fig.  159- 


158 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


shown  in  section.     This  style  of  finish   is  called 
"block  finish,"  because  of  the  turned  block  being 

placed  on  the  corner. 
Fig.  161  exhibits  a 
corner  of  a  balloon 
frame,  showing  the 
manner  of  placing 
the  studs,  corner 
boards  and  other 
finish. 

I  show  at  Fig.  162 
a  drawing  of  a  cor- 
nice for  a  balloon 
frame    house.      The 


v 


(tt: 

:      k -'  '   2x4 


Fig.  160.  Fl'g-  l6l«       ■ 

method  of  construction  is  made  quite  apparent 
and  can  easily  be  followed.  The  walls  are 
boarded  or  "sheeted"  on  the  outside,  and  then 
covered  with  siding  or  clapboards. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


159 


The  next  drawing,  Fig.  163,  shows  a  section  of 
a  corner  for  a  brick  wall.     The  gutter  and  corn- 


Fig.  1C2. 

plete  finish  for  cornice  are  shown;  also,  an  iron 
rod  or  anchor  built  into  the  wall,  having  a  nut 
on   the   top  which   is  intended  to  hold  the  plate 


IflO  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF    TAUGHT 


PLATE    10. 

This  plate  shows  a  number  of  details  half  life 
size.  A  portion  of  elevation  and  section  of 
trim  head  are  given,  also  section  of  casing,  picture 
frame  mould,  plinth-block,  base  and  floor  step. 
The  face  of  plinth-block  is  also  shown. 


o 


m 


fi 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


161 


in  its  place  on  the  wall.  A  section  of  a  box 
window  frame  is  shown  at  Fig.  164.  The  weights 
are  seen  in  the  box,  the  stud  forming  part  of  the; 
box.  This  is  designed  for  a  balloon  frame 
house,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  inside  trim 


'Fig.  163. 

forms  one  side  of  the  box.  This  is  an  exceed- 
ingly cheap  way  to  make  a  frame  as  but  very 
little  stuff  is  required  in  its  construction. 

The  section  of  window  frame  shown   in   Fig. 
165   exhibits   the   portion   cut  at    the   sill.     This 


162 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


Fig.  164. 


shows   the   construction    of    the    frame    at    the 
bottom,  including  inside  and  outside  finish. 

It  will  be  in  order 
now  to  follow  the 
plates  I  have  pre- 
pared, in  which  a 
large  number  of 
constructive  de- 
tails are  presented. 
I  would  advise  that 
the  student  copy 
each  item  as  pre- 
sented, making 
each  one  twice  the  size  as  shown  on  the  plates; 
this  will  make  instruc- 
tive practice  and  will 
soon  fit  the  young 
draftsman  for  work  of 
a  higher  and  more  elab- 
orate kind. 

The  foregoing  illus- 
trations have  been 
especially  prepared  and 
drawn,  with  a  view  of 
leading  the  student  by 
easy  steps  to  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  use  of  his 
instruments  and  the  laying  out  of  work  on  paper. 


Fig.  165. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SKI.F   TAUGHT 


16.8 


Each  item,  too,  has  a  constructive  value,  as 
all  are  drawn  from  examples  of  actual  work, 
and  will,  therefore,  convey  in  some  measure  a 
true  knowledge  of  construction,  without  which 
the  work  of  the  mechanical  draftsman  has  bui 
little  value. 

Straight  Line. 


Curved  Line. 


Fig.   166. 


SOME  ORNAMENTAL  EXAMPLES 

We  have  now  reached  a  stage  where  an 
attempt  at  ornamental  geometrical  drawing  is 
permissible,  and  though  it  is  not  my  intention 
to  go  deeply  into  this  subject,  a  few  examples 
along  with  brief  descriptions  will  probably  start 
some  of  my  readers  on  a  course  of  drawing 
extending  far  beyond  the  limits  of  this  work. 

This  kind  of  drawing — like  most  other 
drawing — is  composed  of  straight  lines,  curved 
lines  and  mixed  lines,  as  shown  in  Fig.  166,  but 


164 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


such  lines  are  regular,  and  are  made  by  the  aid 
of  compasses,   or    other    instruments,  and    this 

t 


fact    distinguishes    geometrical    drawings    from 
drawings  wrought  freehand.     Suppose  we  desire 


\l 


Km 

/ 


Fig.  169. 


Fig.  170. 


Fig.  171. 


to  show  a  square  diagonally  either  for  ornamental 
or    practical    purposes,   we    simply   proceed   as 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


165 


follows:  Figs.  167  and  168  show  the  diagrams; 
join  the  lines  a  b,  c  d,  Fig.  167,  crossing  at  e,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  168.  Take  half  c  d,  Fig.  167,  as  c 
e,  and  set  it  off  from  m,  Fig.  168,  to  e  h,  g  f; 
join  these,  and  parallel  to  them  draw  the 
internal  squares  and 
we  have  a  figure 
more  or  less  orna- 
mental. Again,  sup- 
pose we  desire  a 
'lozenge"  or  dia- 
mond shape;  this  { 
can  be  accomplished  \ 
by  a  similar  method 
as  shown    at    Figs. 

169  and    170.     Fig. 

170  shows  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  is 
drawn;  two  lines  c  b, 
and  e  d,  intersect  at 
a;  a  c,  a  b,  a  e,  a  d, 
are  each  equal  to  half  of  a  b,  e  f,  Fig.  169;  and 
a  h,  a  m,  a  g,  a  f,  Fig.  170,  to  half  of  h  m,  e  d, 
F"ig.  169.  Let  us  put  one  of  these  examples  to 
some  further  purpose;  this  is  done  in  Fig.  171, 
which  shows  how  this  style  of  drawing  may 
be  used  for  filling  in  spaces. 


166 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


The  example    shown   at    Fig.   172   exhibits  a 
method   of   drawing  a   design    for   a   diamond- 

shaped  pattern. 
#  e  The  dotted  lines 
show  the  construc- 
tion, the  distance 
between  the  dia- 
mond as  e  f  g  h,  a 
bed,  being  equal 
to  the  distance  a  f, 
a  d  e.  The  use  of 
this  is  probably  shown  at  Fig.  173,  when  a  design 
for  tile  patterns  is  shown,  the  lines  a  b  c  d  f  are 
drawn  to  the  angle  shown  and  are  parallel    to 


Fig.  173. 


Fig.  174. 

each  other,  the  distances  being  shown  at  i  h  g. 

Another    illustration    of    a   square    being   set 

diagonally  is  shown  at  Fig.  174,  which  illustrates 


ARCHITF.CTIR  AI.    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


167 


an  open  balustrade  in  Gothic  style.  The  student 
should  have  no  difncutly  whatever  in  laying  this 
diagram  off,  as  it  is  a  very  simple  matter. 

Figs.  175  and  176  show  another  design  having 


^^O 


Fig.  175.  Fig.  176. 

six  sides,  which  is  often  employed  in  decoration 
and  in  Gothic  architecture.  The  manner  of  lay- 
ing it  out  is  shown  in  Fig.  175,  and  completed 
figures  are  shown  at  Fig.  176. 


Fig.  177. 

The  same  figure  in  conjunction  with  the  square 
is  shown  in  finished  work  at  Fig.  177.  This 
represents  a  perforated  balustrade  or  parapet; 
the  curved  lines  are  obtained  by  the  compass, 
centers  being  easily  found. 


1(58 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


A  still  more  complicated  figure  is  shown  at 
Fig.  178.  This  may  be  formed  as  follows:  If 
the  points  12,  23,  34,  45,  56,  67,  78  are  joined,  an 
octagon  will  be  formed,  and  a  square  by  joining 
9  10,  12  11.  The  octagon  forms  the  basis  of  the 
combination,  and  is  the  first  thing  to  be  drawn, 


Fig.  178. 


which  may  be  done  as  in  Fig.  179,  by  forming  a 
square,  and  thereafter  an  octagon  the  side  of 
which  is  equal  f  e,  f  g.  Draw  lines,  i  i  m,  distant 
fiom  each  other  equal  to  the  distance  between 
the  rhomboids  in  Fig.  178.  Parallel  to  the 
diagonal  lines  c  b,  a  d,  draw  lines  equal  to  i  i. 
From  e,  one  end  of  the  octagon  side,  draw  a  line 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF    TAUGHT 


109 


perpendicular  to  c  d,  joining  the  diagonal  a  d 
in  h.  From  n,  the  end  of  another  side  of  the 
octagon,  draw  parallel  to  c  d,  a  line  cutting  the 
diagonal  d  a  in  o,  parallel  to  e  h,  k  t;  draw  lines 
p  t,  n  s;  two  of  the  rhomboids  will  thus  be 
formed;  the  remainder  are  drawn  in  a  similar 
way.  These  being  obtained,  the  squares,  as  in 
Pig.  178,  are  easily  drawn. 

Some  good  examples  in  straight  line  work  are 
shown  in  the  following  illustrations.     Thus,  we 


Fig.  179. 


Fig.  180. 


see  by  making  diagonal  lines,  as  shown  at  Fig. 
180,  the  character  of  the  example  becomes 
ornamental,  and  this  maybe  very  much  changed 
again  by  the  introduction  of  small  circles  at  the 
junction  of  the  lines,  as  shown  in  one  instance. 
This  may  again  be  elaborated  by  adding  a  line 
or  dot  to  the  circle  as  shown. 

Another  example  formed  of  squares  and  half 


17C 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT 


squares  is  shown  in  Fig.  181.  This  arrangement 
shows  how  "squares"  may  be  placed  so  as  to 
exhibit  stars  or  other  pointed  ornaments.  The 
shaded  portion  shows  the  star  figure. 

Another    example    partaking    of     the    same 
nature    is   shown    at    Fig.    182.      This    may   be 


Fig.  181. 


Fig.  182. 


termed  a  basket  pattern  and  is  formed  of  inter- 
lacing straps.  This  pattern  is  an  exceedingly 
good  one  for  exercise,  as  it  is  composed  of  short 
lines  and  requires  careful  work  to  prevent  over- 
lapping, which  would  spoil  the  work.  In  starting 
and  ending  a  line,  endeavor  to  have  the  line 
clear  and  distinct  and  of  an  even  thickness  as 
shown  in  the  example.  Lines  must  not  be  left 
short,  but  must  join  the  cross  lines  as  though 
they  were  under  them.  To  draw  a  panel  of 
interlacing  strap  work,  as  shown  in  example, 
without  a  flaw,  is  fairly  good  workmanship. 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING  SELF  TAUGHT 


171 


The  example  shown  at  Fig.  183  is  a  little  more 
difficult  to  plot  out  than  either  of  the  previous 
ones,    and    the   student    will    have   to    use    his 


imggUg 


CJ 


\Sn\ 


LEJl 


Fig.  183. 


Fig.  184. 


compasses  and  set  squares  and  exercise  consid- 
erable judgment.  This  example  is  a  strapwork 
fret,  and  is  a  good  one  to  follow  for  practice. 

Fig.  184  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  same  orna- 
ment, a  quarter  circle  be- 
ing used  on  all  external 
angles  instead  of  having 
the  lines  join  with  a  right 
angle.  In  other  words,  the  ornament  is  a  com- 
bination of  curves  and  straight  lines. 

Copy  these  examples  four  or  five  times  and 
you  will  be  astonished  at  your  own  expertness. 

For  practice  I  offer  a  few  simple  examples  of 
frets;  the  first  three  figures,  185,  186,  and  187,  are 


Fig.  185. 


174 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


Fig.  186. 


purely  Greek  examples,  the  first  being  the 
simplest  form  of  running  Greek  fret.  Its  con- 
struction is  very  simple  and  easy,  and  may  be 

reproduced  with  a 
T  and  set  squares 
alone.  Fig.  185  is 
]  constructed  nearly 
in  the  same  man- 
ner, there  being 
two  more  angles 
in  the  latter  than  the  former.  The  next  fret  is 
a  little  more  difficult  to  lay  off,  but  I  appre- 
hend the  student  will  have  no  great  difficulty  in 
producing  Fig.  186. 

Another  style  of  fret,  partaking  somewhat  of 
the  arabesque,  is 
shown  at  Fig. 
187.  This  can  be 
repeated  or  con- 
tinued at  will. 
After  drawing  J 
one  complete 
figure,  its  combi- 


Fig.  187. 


nation  will  prove  quite  easy,  though  some  little 
trouble  and  care  will  be  experienced  in  forming 
the  first  complete  figure  as  shown. 

At   Fig.    188  a  very  different  kind   of   fret  is 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


173 


shown.  This  is  composed  of  different  figures,  as 
e  e  forms  a  complete  square,  a  number  of  which 
are  set  off  at  regular  intervals,  then  arrange  so 
that   the    points  a 


n 


e e 


m 


u 


0  d  will  be  covered, 
by  the  points  b  o  c, 
and  continue  the 
fret  to  the  required 
length. 

In    working    or- 
naments      having 

curved  lines  in  them,  many  examples  can  be  pre- 
sented, but  I  do  not  intend  to  illustrate  more  than 

1  think  will  be  necessary  to  enable  the  student 


Fig.  ii 


6 


•  / 


/v~~ 


A    • '- 


i  i        * 


>r ) 

JJ 


Fig.  189. 


to  fairly  understand  the  principles  on  which  the 
ornamentation  is  based.  The  diagram  shown  in 
Fig.  189  will  suggest  to  the  draftsman  something 
of  the  method  in  which  combination  of  circles 


174 


ARCIUTKCTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


may  be  used  for  ornamental  purposes.     Here  a 

diagonal  square,  c  d  f  g,  is  first  formed,  one  side 

of  which   is  equal  to  the  distance  between  the 

centers  of  the  circles,  as  a,  b,  c,  d. 

The  radii  of  the  circles  described 

,.}..     from  the  points  d  c  g  f  is  equal  to 

«.  half   the  side,    as    d    m,   f  n,   etc. 

r Z^  Exemplifications  of  this  figure  are 

|  often   found  in  Gothic  perforated 
parapets  and  similar  work. 

Another  class  of  drawing  is 
shown  in  Fig.  190,  where  parts  of 
circles  and  straight  lines  are  used 
in  order  to  form  the  ornament. 
In  order  to  make  this,  proceed  as 
follows:  Draw  the  base  line  b  first,  then  make 
a  b  at  right  angles  to  the  first  line.  The  respec- 
tive depths  of  the  moulding  must  then  be  meas- 
ured off  on  this  line,  as  d,  h,  m,  o,  and  r,  z,  t, 
show  the  center  line  of  the  torus  s,  and  e  f,  and 
u  v  show  the  centers  of  the  ogees,  and  g  n,  the 
quarter  round.  Here  in  this  example  we  have 
most  of  the  mouldings  in  use  in  architecture — 
the  ogee,  or  cyma  recta,  and  the  reverse  ogee,  or 
cyma  reverse,  the  torus,  the  astragal,  the  quar- 
ter-round, and  the  fillet. 

Fig.  191  shows  a  design  for  a  baluster  that  can 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


175 


readily  be  drawn  by  the  student,  as  the  centers 
for  the  various  curves  are  given.  The  center 
of  the  lower  curve  is  at  a;  centers  for  the  upper 
curves  may  be  found  by  drawing  a  line  c  b;  from 
a  and  b  describe  arcs  cutting  in  d,  with  radius  d 


Xd 


A  — 


yrp 


j&.Jks 

f              !■* 

V 

iic' 

V      :        1 

o 

■.a. 

Fig.  191. 


Fig.   192. 


a  describe  an  arc  cutting  the  line  c  d  in  c;  c  in 
the  center  of  the  curve  which  is  continued  to  the 
dotted  line  c  b;  a  straight  line  is  then  continued 
to  the  neck  of  the  baluster.  The  other  curves 
and  lines  are  readily  obtained. 

The  urn-shaped  ornament  shown  in  Fig.  192  is 
somewhat  more  complicated  than  the  previous 


176  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


PLATE  ii. 

Plate  1 1  shows  four  doors  of  the  style  to  be 
used  in  the  cottage.  These  doors  are  drawn  to 
a  scale  of  one-half  inch  to  the  foot.  The  same 
character  prevails  in  these  four  examples,  the 
sliding  doors  being  merely  one  of  the  second 
floor  doors.  The  front  doors  are  chamfered 
around  the  panels  instead  of  being  moulded,  as 
the  others  are.  The  front  and  rear  door  may  be 
fitted  with  glass  if  so  desired,  in  the  second 
panel  from  top. 


PlateJI. 


= 


5w>//d  F2£r    D^-R  5U0t^6    0?*«- 


f^^O??Jk 


]! 


r^T'Djy^ 


ijL 

ARCHITECTURAL    DHAW1.NG    SELF   TAUGHT 


177 


Fig.  193. 


example.  It  is  suited  to  many  purposes,  par- 
ticularly that  of  terminal.  To  form  it  we  first 
draw  a  center  line  h  h,  then  the  base  a  b,  c  c, 
the  fillet  d,  and  the 
curved  lines  f  f,  g 
g;  f  f and  e  e  are 
the  centers  of  the 
circles;  join  g  h; 
bisect  it  by  the  line 

i  i,  cutting  g  g  in  k  k;  from  k,  with  the  radius  k 
h,  describe  arcs  g  h,  and  the  line  n  n,  the  centers 
of  the  cap  moulding  are  found. 

The  last  three  examples  are  of  a  purely 
practical  kind,  and  their  determination  suggests 
many  other  forms  which  will  doubtless  appeal 
to  the  student's  imagination. 

The  ornament  shown  at  Fig.  193  is  called  a 
Gnillochc,  or  chain,  and  is  formed  by  concentric 

circles  overlapping 
each  other.  This 
pattern  is  easily 
drawn  with  com- 
passes, but  is  here 
given  as  a  freehand 
study,  in  order  to  give  the  student  an  exercise 
in  severity  and  accuracy  of  form. 

Figs.  194  and  195  are  studies  of  the  wave-line. 


Fig.  j  94. 


178 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


They  are,  in  fact,  the   cyma  recta   repeated,  the 

depth  being  lessened  in  Fig.  195. 

Fig.  196  is  a  study  of  the  elementary  lines  of 

a  running  scroll,  formed  of  the  wave-line,  with  the 

addition  of  spirals. 
Care  must  be  taken 
in  drawing  these  spi- 
rals, so  that  they 
may  proceed  from 
the  stem  in  a  smooth 

and  continuous  manner.     They  should  start  as  a 

continuation  of  the  wave-line  so  gradually,  that 


Fig.  195. 


Fig.  196. 


if  the  stem  beyond  the  spiral  were  removed  the 
scroll  would  be  perfect,  and  that  if  the  scroll  were 


Fig.  197. 

taken  away  the  wave-line  would  remain  unin- 
jured. This  should  also  be  the  case  in  Fig.  197, 
in  which  tendrils  are  added  to  the  scrolls. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


179 


Fig.  198  is  a  further  elaboration  of  the  same 
design,  the  lines  being  doubled. 

Fig.  199  is  another  simple  running  pattern 
based  on  the  wave-line. 

The  example  shown   at  Fig.  200  is  an  orna- 


Fig.  198. 

mental  moulding  adapted  for  wood-carving,  and 
gives  the  pattern  and  half  the  repeat. 

Having  drawn  the  upper  and  lower  horizontal 
lines,  draw  A  B,  C  U,  E  F,  and  G  H;  the 
distance  between   them  being  equal.      Then   it 


Fig.  199. 

will  be  seen  that  C  D  and  G  H  are  the  center 
lines  of  the  heart,  and  that  A  B  and  E  F  are  the 
center  lines  of  the  tongue  or  leaf  between  the 
hearts.  Now  draw  the  curve  J,  and  balance  it 
by  the  curve  I. 

It  will  of  course  be  understood  that  although 


180 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


the  instructions  and  lettering  refer  to  the  com- 
plete figure,  it  is  intended  that  the  corresponding 
lines  in  the  repeat  are  to  be  drawn  at  the  same 
time;  in  fact,  whatever  length  of  the  moulding 
is  to  be  drawn,  these  divisions  or  compartments 
should   be   first   set  out,  and    the  single  curve 


Fig.  200. 

drawn  in  each  before  proceeding  any  further. 
On  no  account  should  one  portion  be  completed 
before  the  others  have  been  sketched,  for  as 
each  set  of  curves  is  drawn  the  drawing  becomes 
more  complex,  and  the  difficulty  of  accurate 
balancing  is  increased. 

When  these  curves  have  been  completed,  the 
interior  ones  which  depend  upon,  but  are  not 
parallel  to  them,  are  to  follow.  In  drawing  these 
the  greatest  care  is  necessary  so  that  the  curves 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGH1  181 

may  run  gracefully  downwards,  the  space 
between  the  inner  and  outer  curves  becoming 
gradually  narrower. 

The  center  part  at  C  is  now  to  be  drawn, 
following  the  plan  already  laid  down,  viz.:  to 
draw  first  the  left  and  then  the  right  side  of  the 
figure;  and  after  this  the  leaves  between  the 
hearts  are  to  be  drawn  in  the  same  manner. 

The  pattern  shown  at  Fig.  201  is  for  a  running, 
arranged  so  as  to  repeat;  a  will  therefore  join 
on  to  b,  and  thus  the  design  may  be  continued. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  order  to  equalize  the 
spaces  so  as  to  carry  out  this  arrangement,  the 
whole  is  divided  into  squares,  and  the  central 
flower  is  placed  on  the  intersection  of  the 
diagonals. 

In  commencing  this  design,  the  general  form 
is  to  be  sketched  of  each  scroll  rising  out  of  the 
previous  one.  At  this  stage  no  notice  should 
be  taken  of  the  husks  or  foliage  c  d,  etc.,  but  the 
scrolls  should  be  sketched  as  if  consisting  of  the 
main  stem  only,  and  the  husks  should  then  be 
drawn  outside  the  original  form. 

Great  care  must  be  exercised  to  insure  the 
smooth,  spiral  character  of  the  curves.  There 
must  be  no  angular  breaks,  but  the  eye  must  be 
carried    onward    towards    the    center   of    each 


l82  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT 


bo 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


183 


scroll,  and  the  husks  must  appear  as  additions, 
but  not  as  excrescences.  In  order  to  test  the 
correctness  of  the  forms,  turn  the  sketch  upside 
down,  place  it  vertically,  or  in  any  other  direc- 
tion, and  if  the  design  has  been  correctly 
sketched,  the  scrolls  should  be  equally  perfect 
in  whatever  position  they  may  be  viewed.     This 


Fig.  202. 


OOC  Wt  M  1 


Fig.  203. 

should  be  repeatedly  done  during  the  progress 
of  the  work,  so  that  any  part  which  may  be  too 
full  or  too  flat  may  be  improved  before  the 
husks,  flowers,  foliage,  or  other  details  are 
added. 

The  ornament  shown  in  Fig.  202  is  called  the 
Echinus,  the  egg  and  tongue,  or  egg  and  dart 
moulding.  It  is  much  used  by  carvers  for 
borders  and  similar  work. 


184  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

The  moulding  shown  at  Fig.  203  is  the  Greek 
astragal,  chaplet,  or  knuckle-bone  ornament: 
this,  also,  is  quite  a  favorite  moulding  with 
carpenters  and   cabinet-makers,  because  it  can 


Fig.  204. 

be  turned  in  a  lathe  and  then  split  in  two  or 
quartered. 

Fig.  204  shows  the  Greek  conventional  lily 
form.  It  has  a  faint  resemblance  to  the 
Egyptian  lotus,  but  has  a  Grecian  delicacy 
about  it  that  is  absent  in  Egyptian  forms. 

The  ornament  shown  in  Fig.  205  is  the   Greek 


ARCIIITKCH  UAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGH1 


185 


.  Xnikemion.  This  is  a  very  good  example  for 
practice.  It  can  all  be  drawn  by  the  aid  of 
compasses. 


Fig.  205. 

The  border  shown  at  Fig.  206  is  purely 
Kgyptian,  and  is  partly  made  up  of  the  open 
lotus     Bower     and     the    bud.     This    is    a    very 


180 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


common  ornament  for  stenciling,  incised  work 
and  low  relief  carving. 

A  circular   or  rosette  ornament  is  shown  at. 
Fig.  207  which  is  formed  of  a  circle  and  four 


Fig.  206. 

lotus  flowers.  This  may  be  drawn  free-hand  or 
by  the  aid  of  compasses.  A  conventional  form 
of  the  lotus,  in  a  more  finished  and  elaborate 

state,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  208.  This  or- 
nament was  much 
in  use  with  the  an- 
cient Egyptians,  and 
was  considered  as 
being  a  sort  of  sa- 
cred emblem  with 
them.  Indeed,  the 
lotus  was  known  by 
Egyptians  as  "the 
sacred  flower." 
The  illustration  shown  at  Fig.  209  is  a  Roman 
border,  and   is  composed  of  curved  and  straight 


Fig.   207. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


187 


lines.     This  border  is  found  on  many  of  the  old 
Roman  buildings    now    extant    and    appears    to 


Fig.  208. 

have   been    a   favorite   ornament   with   the  old 
designers. 


Fig.  Z09. 

The  ornament  or  rosette  shown  in  Fig.  209^  is 
a  Roman  one  used  largely  during  the  period  of 


188 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    8ELF   TAUGHT 


the  decay  of  art, 
about  the  second 
century  of  our  era. 
It  is  quite  elabo- 
rate, but  is  not  by 
any  means  effec- 
tive. The  orna- 
ment shown  in  Fig. 
210  is  also  Roman 
but  is  the  product 


Fie.  2 it 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING  SELF  TAUGHT     189 

of  a   better    period    and    offers  some  advanced 
lines  for  the  student's  consideration. 


Fig.  21 1. 

The  scroll  border  shown  at  Fig.  211  is  of  the 
Byzantine    style   of    architecture-    and    is    quite 


Fig.  212. 

effective  in  its  way  The  rosette  shown  in  Fig 
212  is  also  of  that  style  and  offers  good  practice 
to  the  student. 

These  latter  examples  are  taken  mostly  from 


190 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


classic  executed  work,  and  while  they  only 
touch  the  fringe  of  classic  ornament,  they  will, 
to  some  extent,  give  to  the  student  an  idea  of 
the  "ornaments  employed  in  the  historical  styles, 
and  thus  enable  him  to  design  his  work  on  these 
lines  with  intelligence. 

GOTHIC    ORNAMENT 

Gothic  style  is  so  much  different  to  the  styles 
that  preceded  it,  that  a  separate  chapter  may 
well  be  devoted  to  it  in  order  that  the  student 


Fig.  213. 

may  have  a  fair  opportunity  of  judging  for  him- 
self the  peculiarities  of  the  style. 

The  first  example  presented  is  a  Gothic 
border,  Fig.  213,  which,  it  will  be  seen,  has  a 
character  of  its  own,  that  is  far  apart  from  other 
ornamentation.  The  main  features  of  this  style 
lie  in  the  fact  that  its  members  all  have  a  vertical 


AKCIIITECTUHAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


191 


tendency  as  may  be  noticed  in  its  pointed 
arches,  its  sharp  spires,  its  pinnacles,  its  but- 
tresses, its  cluster  columns,  and  its  wonderful 
traceried  windows  and  doors.  Its  chief  elements 
are  window  tracery,  trefoils,  quatrefoils,  cinque- 
foils,  zigzags,  gargoyles,  fleur-de-lis  and  ball 
flowers.  These, 
along  with  many 
other  examples 
of  ornamentation, 
and  peculiar  lay- 
out of  plan  and 
elevation,  may  be 
said  to  constitute 
the    Gothic   style. 

The  illustration 
shown  at  Fig.  214 
represents  the  tre- 
foil ornament,  as  used  in  windows  and  other 
decoration,  and  is  formed  as  follows:  Draw 
the  equilateral  triangle  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines  a  b  c,  then  bisect  it  as  at  c  f  and  a 
e,  cutting  the  line  c  f,  which  gives  the  center  for 
the  surrounding  circles;  a  b  and  c  are  the 
centers  of  the  trefoil  curves. 

The  next  illustration,  Fig.  215,  is  the  quatrefoil 
and  is  described  from  the  corners,  h  m,  f  g,  of  a 


Fig.  214. 


19w2  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


PLATE  12. 

This  plate  shows  a  portion  of  the  stairs,  com- 
plete and  under  construction.  The  newel  post 
and  balusters  are  plain  and  chamfered.  The 
bottom  step  is  rounded  off  at  the  newel. 


eftjllo  e^^'CgLRs 


LATE.IZ. 


L 


Si 


ARCHITECT!  HAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


193 


square;  a  is  the  center  of  the  surrounding  circles, 
found  by  the  intersection  of  the  diagonals,  a  b, 

c  d,  of  the  square; 
the  curves,  s  s  s  s, 
are  drawn  fro  m 
the  center  a;  while 
those  meeting  in 
a_  t  1 1  t  are  described 
from  the  centers, 
h  m,  f  and  g. 

The  cinquefoil, 
Fig.  216,  is  de- 
scribed from  the 
corners  of  the  pen- 
tagon, a  b,  d  e  f;  by  dividing  e  d  equally  on  the 
point  g,  and  draw- 
ing a  line  from 
a  to  it,  cutting  the 
perpendicular  e  c 
in  h,  the  center  n 
is  the  point  from 
which  the  sur- 
rounding circles 
are  drawn.  The 
other  parts  of  this 
orna  m  cnt  are 
easily  drawn. 


Fig.   216. 


194 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


Two  more  examples,  and  then  I  have  finished 
in  this  style,  but  these  are  elaborate  and  will, 
doubtless,  try  the  skill  and  patience  of  the  stu- 
dent, but  the  results  will  well  repay  for  the  labor, 


Fig.  217. 

and  will  open  up  new  and  unexplored  fields  for 
practice,  for  hundreds  of  designs  may  be  formed 
by  aid  of  the  knowledge  gained  in  understanding 
the  examples  herewith  presented. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    BELF   TAUGHT  195 

The  diagram  shown  at  Fig.  217  exhibits  the 
skeleton  work  for  the  finished  tracery  shown  at 
Fig.  218.  The  centers  for  all  the  curves  of  one 
third  of  the  work  are  all  shown  by  the  heavy 
black  dots.     By  a  little  study  and  patience  the 


Fig.  218. 

student  will  soon  be  able  to  draw  the  completed 
work,  Fig.  218. 

In   Fig.   219  we  have  another  skeleton  for  a 
still  more  elaborate  piece  of  work.     The  centers 


]{)(> 


ARCHITECTURAL    Dli.WVlNli    SELF   TAUGHT 


are  all  shown  by  black  dots,  and  portions  of  the 
curves  are  also  given.  The  completed  work 
shown  at  Fig.  220  has  a  very  rich  and  ornate 
appearance.      These    two    examples    are    quite 


I    A 


Fig.  219. 

sufficient  to  give  the  student  a  good  insight  into 
Gothic  tracery  work,  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  in  Gothic  work  the  designs  of  this  character 
are  innumerable.     Portions  of  these  designs  are 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  197 

used    in    window    and    door    heads,    and    in    a 
hundred  other  places,  always  with  effect. 

It  will  be   noticed  that   in   these   two  designs 
given,  that  the  trefoil,  or  three  circles,  forms  the 


Fig.  220. 

foundation  of  the  whole  of  the  work.  All  the 
other  ornamentation  seems  to  cluster  around 
the  three  larger  circles;  this  is  the  peculiarity 
of  these   two   examples,   but   it  must  be  borne  in 


198 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SKLF   TAUGHT 


mind  that  the  trefoil  is  not  the  only  basis  around 
which  the  old  Gothic  designers  built  their 
tracery;  but  these  are  sufficient  for  our  purposes. 


SOME    PRACTICAL    EXAMPLES    OF    ORNAMENTATION 

The    studious    draftsman   will   soon   discover 
many  new  worlds   to  conquer  if   he  pays  much 

attention    to  his 

1  work,  and  he  will 

find  that,  for  or- 
namental work, 
the  power  of  his 
compasses  is  al- 
Fis-221-  most      without 

limit.     I  offer  a  few  simple  examples  herewith, 


I 


i\  * 


Fig.  ^^z. 


and  will   follow  them  up  with  others  of  a  more 
complicated  nature. 

The  illustrations  shown  at   Figs.  221    and  222 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


199 


show  the  finished  work,  and  working  diagrams. 
The  method  of  drawing  these  curves  and  orna- 
ments is  quite  apparent,  the  centers  are  all 
given,  and  the  dotted  lines  show  the  direction 
of  the  curves.     A  very  little  practice  on  these 


Fig.  223. 

examples  will  enable  the  draftsman  to  describe 
them  in  quick  time,  and  will  give  him  an  insight 
into  the  methods  employed  in  designing  orna- 
ments of  this  kind. 

Another    very   simple   design,    and   one   that 
requires   but  little    description  on   the    manner 


x>00 


ARC'IIITIXTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


of  making  it,  is  self-evident,  and  is  shown  at  Fig. 
323.  This  is  a  very  effective  ornament,  and  at 
ene  time  was  much  in  vogue. 

The  ornament  shown  at  Fig.  224  is  drawn 
right  and  left,  one-half  being  complete,  and  the 
other  half  exhibiting   the  various  centers  from 


Fig.  224. 


which  the  curves  of  the  pattern  are  drawn.  The 
method  of  forming  scrolls  has  been  described  in 
a  previous  chapter,  so  that  it  is  unnecessary  to 
repeat  at  this  stage.  The  design  is  simple,  the 
centers  being  all  given  and  the  dotted  lines 
snow  the  radii  of  the  curves. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF    TAUGHT 


201 


The  design  shown  at  Fig.  225  is  taken  from 
an  old  example  of  panel  work  and  has  rather  a 
quaint  look.  The  draftsman  will  have  no  great 
difficulty  in  lining  out  this  design. 

The  ornament  shown  at  Fig.  226  is  intended 
for  a  double  barge-board,  having  a  belt  running 

along  the  center,  di- 


viding the  upper  from 
the  lower  portion. 
This  design  is  some- 
what complicated, 
and  I  therefore  give 
herewith  a  full  de- 
scription of  the  meth- 
od of  describing  it. 
To  properly  divide 
the  diameter  a,  b,  of 
the  circle  a  b,  c,  d, 
into  six  equal  parts,  through  the  third  of  these, 
drawing  the  line  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  at  right 
angles  to  a,  b.  From  3,  with  distance  equal  to 
one  of  the  parts  on  a,  b,  set  off  the  line  a,  c,  to 
the  points  6  and  7,  and  through  the  points,  2,  4, 
6,  and  7,  draw  lines,  forming  a  square.  Then 
from  the  point  3  as  a  center,  with  35  or  31  as 
radius,  describe  the  circle  hi,  13d.  Then  with 
half  the  distance  5b,  nla,  and  upon  the  lines  6 


202  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


Fig.  za6. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


203 


and  7,  produced  to  right  and  left,  describe  from 
the  centers  j,  k,  89,  the  arcs  of  circles  which  will 
join  the  parts  of  circle,  i5,  hi,  as  5I,  Im,  hn,  50, 
with  the  sides  2  and  4  of  the  square.  The  small 
circles   as   j,   k,  89,  give  the  standard    for   the 


Fig.  227. 

various  centers  and  center  lines,  the  moulded 
part  d,  being  drawn  to  depth  as  shown.  Set  off 
from  the  d  the  distance  of  the  diameter  of  small 
circles  as  k,  from  the  point  d,  nine  and  a  half 
times  to  the  point  f,  which  terminates  the  design. 
The  line  p,  q  is  drawn  at  right  angles  to  g  f, 
through  the  first  part,  r,  s,  through  the  third  and 
the  line  t,  u,  through    a  point  midway  between 


204  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

the  sixth  and  seventh  points.  All  the  circles 
and  arcs  of  circles  are  either  equal  to  parts  or 
multiples  of  the  standard  circle  as  k,  or  f,  any 
one  of  the  six  divisions  on  the  line  a,  b. 

The  design  shown  at  Fig.  227  is  also  a  pattern 
for  a  verge  board,  and  is  a  very  good  example 
of  the  kind.  The  centers  for  the  circles  are  all 
shown  in  the  working  diagram,  the  cutting  lines 
all  being  represented  by  the  dotted  lines.  I 
purposely  leave  this  without  a  further  descrip- 
tion so  that  the  draftsman  may  exercise  his  own 
skill  in  working  it  out,  not  a  very  difficult  matter 
when  the  reference  letters  are  given. 

The  drawing  shown  at  Fig.  228  is  a  design  for 
a  balcony  panel,  showing  frame  and  drop  mould- 
ings. Suppose  a,  b,  to  be  the  total  height;  then 
divide  it  into  seven  equal  parts  and  through  the 
fourth  of  the  points  draw  a  line  c,  d  at  right 
angles  to  a,  b.  Make  the  facia  at  top  equal  to 
the  distance  between  the  sixth  and  seventh 
points.  From  the  line  d,  set  off  to  e,  and  f,  and 
make  f,'g;  e,  h,  each  equal  to  two-thirds  of  one 
of  the  parts  on  a,  b,  as  7,  8.  Through  the  point 
2,  draw  a  line  parallel  to  c,  d,  through  e,  f;  g, 
h,  draw  lines  parallel  to  a,  b.  Make  b,  j,  equal 
to  e,  f,  and  through  j,  draw  a  line  parallel  to  c. 
d,  joining   f,  e,     Bisect   2,  j,   in   the   point   k,  and 


ARCIITTIX  Tl'HAI.    DRAWING    SELF    TAUGHT 


2U.J 


through   k,  draw  m,  k,  1,  parallel  to  c,  d.     With 
one-fourth  of  the  distance  of  g,  h,  or  e,  f,  set  off 


Fig.  228. 

from   the  points  j,  k,  o,  and   m,  on   each   side  of 
the  center  lines,  as  to  o,  and  n,  from   2,  and  1. 


206  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 

Prom  these  points  as  centers,  as  o,  and  n,  with 
radii  equal  too,  i,  describe  arcs  cutting  as  at  p, 
and  from  p,  describe  an  arc  joining  o,  n.  Do  the 
same  at  all  the  other  points,  and  describe  the 
double  arcs.  Divide  one  of  the  parts  into  which 
a,  b,  is  divided,  as  the  lowest  part  b,  I,  into  four 
equal  parts,  as  in  the  points  of  r,  and  s.  With 
two  of  these  as  radius,  from  the  point  k,  in 
center  describe  the  circle  k,  t,  u,  and  put  in  the 
ornament  with  the  arcs  as  shown.  Through  the 
points  I,  s,  2,  and  q,  as  the  line  a,  b,  draw  lines 
with  distance  q  b  set  off  from  q  to  v,  and  from 
v  draw  a  line  parallel  to  a  b,  parallel  to  m,  k,  1. 
With  r,  s,  as  radius,  from  v,  as  center  describe 
the  arc  v,  x.  With  half  the  distance  q,  v,  set  off 
from  x,  to  y,  and  through  y,  draw  a  line  parallel 
to  v,  w,  as  y,  z;  the  point  z,  is  the -center  of  the 
arc  y,  a.  The  arc  from  a,  is  described  with 
radius  x,  y,  and  through  the  center  a  line  to  b,  is 
drawn  parallel  to  w,  v.  The  arc  c,  is  described 
from  the  point  d.  The  dotted  lines  and  radii 
show  how  the  other  parts  are  put  in.  The 
ornaments  at  f,  are  put  in  the  lines  drawn  from 
the  center  k,  to  the  corner  points,  as  at  e. 

These  examples  make  splendid  practice  for 
the  young  student,  and  if  repeated  two  or  three 
times,    they   will    become  so  impressed   on    the 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  207 

mind  that  they  may  be  produced  at  will  without 
copy,  and  enable  one  to  form  designs,  with  the 
aid  of  rule  and  compass,  to  suit  almost  any 
situation.  All  these  examples  are  formed  in 
exact  architectural  proportions,  a  matter  that  is 
often  lost  sight  of  by  the  draftsman,  who  is 
sometimes  astonished  at  his  own  uncouth 
creations,  which  become  as  offensive  to  the 
trained  eye  as  vulgar  language  does  to  the 
cultivated  ear.  In  the  formation  of  ornaments, 
like  everything  else  in  this  world,  there  is  an 
"eternal  fitness,"  a  fact  which  should  never  be 
lost  sight  of. 

The  design  shown  at  Fig.  229  is  a  very  useful 
one  and  will  answer  very  nicely  for  a  drop  or  an 
eaves  board.  Suppose  a,  b,  to  be  the  height  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  design  which  is  divided 
into  thirteen  equal  parts.  Then,  through  the 
second,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eleventh  of  these, 
draw  lines  at  right  angles  to  a  b.  From  point  I, 
with  half  the  distance  of  the  space  between 
points  I  and  2,  as  radius,  describe  the  circle  d. 
From  the  point  2,  draw  lines  at  an  angle  of  450 
to  the  line  c  f,  cutting  the  semicircle;  these 
points,  as  g  and  h,  give  the  centers  of  the  semi- 
circles. From  one  center  of  the  circle  described 
between  the  points  3  and  4  draw  lines  at  right 


208  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


PLATE  13. 

Plate  13  shows  a  mantel  in  elevation  and 
section,  also  a  plan  of  the  shelf,  with  construc- 
tion lines.  This  is  drawn  to  a  scale  of  %  of  an 
inch  to  the  foot. 


yuui/r1 


Vtvuu, 


Z? 


vviy^1 


VJ  l>  1/  ~ 


PLRTEI3. 


aa. 


>  < 


w 


u  W  Vtry^ 


u  uyvuuy 


^gs 


!?775S?? 


— a 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  20<) 


Fig.  229. 


210  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 

angles  to  the  line  e,  f,  to  i  and  j.  These  are  the 
centers  of  the  parts  of  circles  thus  shown. 
Finishing  the  circle  at  the  point  k  draw  the  line 
k,  1,  parallel  to  a  b;  on  this  line  the  center  m,  of 
the  arcs  n  and  o,  is  found.  6  and  p  are  the 
centers  of  the  arcs  q  and  r.  The  remaining 
portions  of  the  design  may  readily  be  put  in 
from  the  lines,  curves  and  centers  given. 

The  example  shown  at  Fig.  230  illustrates  an 
elaborate  design  suited  for  a  balustrade  and 
many  other  purposes.  Let  a  b  be  the  height; 
divide  this  into  two  equal  parts  in  the  point  c, 
through  c,  draw  a  line  at  right  angles  to  a  b,  as 
d  c  d.  Draw  the  distance  a  b,  into  eighteen,  or 
a  c,  into  nine  equal  parts.  With  one  of  these, 
from  the  center  c,  describe  the  circle  e,  f,  g, 
h,  and  from  the  point  where  this  cuts  the  line, 
a  b;  d,  d,  describe  circles,  the  radius  of  which 
is  one-fourth  of  one  of  the  parts,  or  a,  c.  Then 
with  the  distance  as  h,  g,  from  these  points  as 
centers,  describe  arcs  cutting  in  the  point  i, 
from  i,  as  a  center  with  e,  the  same  radius  still 
kept  on  the  compasses,  describe  an  arc  j.  Do 
the  same  from  the  other  points,  as  g,  f;  f,  e;  e. 
h,  and  thus  find  the  centers  from  which  the  arcs 
corresponding  to  j,  are  described.  From  the 
points  k,  1,  where  the  outside  of  the  small  circles 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT  211 


Fig.  230. 


~'l^  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT 

e  and  g,  cut  the  line  d,  d,  as  centers  with  i,  j,  or 
c,  g,  as  radius,  describe  arcs  as  t,  r,  s,  or  u,  q,  v, 
stopping  at  lines  a,  m;  o,  p,  drawn  through  the 
points  k,  and  1,  parallel  to  a,  h.  Next,  from  i, 
set  off  to  the  point  p,  and  do  the  same  at  the 
other  and  corresponding  points,  thus  finding  the 
four  centers  m,  n,  o,  and  p.  From  these,  with 
e,  c,  d,  or  i,  j,  as  radius,  describe  arcs  which  are 
joined  by  straight  lines  with  the  semicircles  w, 
and  x,  at  the  upper  and  lower  ends  of  the  design. 
To  find  the  centers  of  these  semicircles,  divide 
the  distance  between  the  points  I,  and  2,  on  the 
line  a  b,  into  four  equal  parts,  and  at  the  points 
draw  a  line  z,  z;  from  the  point  y  set  off  in  the 
line  z  z,  a  distance  equal  to  b  g,  to  the  points  a 
and  b.  From  these  points  a  and  b  with  a  radius 
equal  to  y,  I,  or  y,  2,  describe  semicircles,  as  w, 
c;  x,  c.  Join  the  points  w,  and  x,  by  straight 
lines  e,  e,  with  the  arcs  described  from  the  points 
p,  and  n.  From  a  point  in  the  center  between 
b,  and  c,  and  a,  and  c,  describe  a  small  arc,  and 
join  this  with  another  arc  with  the  points,  as  d, 
d;  the  center  of  the  arcs  being  at  c,  c.  The 
lower  arc,  d,  f,  is  described  from  the  center  g, 
which  is  on  a  line  drawn  through  a  point  the 
third  in  the  distance  b,  I,  on  the  line  b  a.  To 
describe  the  part  marked  A,  cut  out  the  part  B, 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


21. 'J 


B.  From  the  point  m,  o,  and  n,  and  p,  describe 
small  circles,  the  radius  being  one-fourth  part 
of  one  of  the  parts  on  a  b.  With  a  radius  equal 
to  half  of  one  of  the  parts  as  I  2,  on  the  line  a  b, 
describe  circles  from  the  point  f,  f ;  k,  k,  having  a 


Fig.  231. 

space  between  them  equal  to  the  space  at  c,  as 
1,  1,  and  with  a  radius  equal  to  the  diameter  oi 
these  circles,  describe  from  the  points  I,  1,  the 
arcs  m,  n;  m.  n.  From  n,  n,  which  are  equidistant 
from  the  center  line,  a  space  equal  to  the  radius 
of  the  small  circles  n,  p;  describe  with  radius  of 
these  small  circles  the  arcs  meeting  in  the  point 


"-2 14  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT 

o.  With  w,  v,  or  s,  t,  as  radius,  set  off  on  the  line 
h,  h;  from  the  points  1,  1,  to  h,  h,  and  from  h,  h, 
describe  the  arcs  1,  p,  1,  p,  the  centers  of  the 
arcs  p,  p,  are  q.  q. 

These  examples  are  quite  sufficient  for  our 
purpose  so  far  as  woodwork  and  decoration  are 
concerned,  but  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  supple- 
ment them  with  a  few  on  the  same  line,  that  will 
answer  for  iron,  for  wood,  or  for  designs  in 
stencilling  or  other  decorative  work.  To  this 
end,  I  present  an  ornament  in  Fig.  231,  that  is 
suitable  for  a  central  ornament,  and  one  that 
may  be  employed  for  many  purposes.  Carvers 
frequently  make  use  of  this  as  a  skeleton  figure 
for  carved  panel  work  as  it  may  be  elaborated 
to  almost  any  extent.  The  manner  of  drawing 
it  is  as  follows:  Let,  a  a,  be  the  center  line,  and 
a,  b,  the  distance  from  upper  rail  to  center  of 
lower  part  of  design;  through  b,  draw  the  line  c, 
d,  at  right  angles  to  a,  b;  c,  d,  in  the  length  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  design.  Divide  c,  b,  b,  d,  into 
two  equal  parts  in  the  points  e,  and  f,  with 
radius  e,  c,  describe  an  arc  cutting  in  the  point  i; 
from  i,  with  i,  a,  describe  the  arc  b,  a,  h.  From 
the  point  b,  set  off  the  distance  e,  f,  to  the  point 
j;  and  through  j,  draw  a  line  k,  k,  parallel  to  c, 
d.     From  j,  with  the  distance  b,  f,  set  off  to  the 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAT  CHI 


215 


points  I,  and  m,  and  these  will  be  the  centers  of 
arcs  forming  the  upper  part  of  the  design.  The 
lines  and  centers  for  the  spiral  terminations  of 


Fig.  232. 

the  leading  curves  thus  described  as  shown  in 
the  drawing. 

The  skeleton  shown  in  the  illustration,  Fig. 
232,  exhibits  an  ornament  drawn  altogether  with 
the  compass.  The  centers  are  all  shown  and 
lettered    for    reference;    r    being    the    general 


216 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING  SELF   TAUGHT 


center,  while  a, 
j,  d,  i,  m  and  c 
show  the  divis- 
ions and  radia- 
ting lines  of  one- 
half  of  the  fig- 
ure. As  the  cen- 
ters may  all  be 
framed  at  the 
intersections  of 
the  dotted  lines, 
further  explan- 
ations are  un- 
necessary. 

I  close  this 
department  by 
illustrating  a  n 
ornament  in 
which  the  ellipse 
predominates, 


Fig.    23; 


\Y 


hich 


exhibits  a  run- 
ning scroll  suit- 
ed to  many  pur- 
poses. On  the 
continent  of  Eu- 
rope   scrolls    of 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  217 

this  kind  are  often  used  as  window  screens, 
being  attached  to  the  frame  and  covered 
with  gauze,  or  woven  wire,  to  prevent  insects 
getting  in  the  house  when  the  window  is  open. 
This  shows  OiJy  half  the  design.  The  height 
of  this  section,  a,  b,  is  divided  into  nine 
equal  parts,  the  width  of  the  framework  is 
equal  to  one  of  these  parts.  From  c,  at  right 
angles  to  c,  d,  draw  the  line  c,  f,  and  with  the 
distance  a,  b,  from  the  point  c,  set  off  to  the 
points  e  and  f,  and  through  these  points  draw 
lines  at  right  angles  to  c,  f;  f,  g,  is  the  center 
line  of  the  design.  From  the  point  f,  with  four 
of  the  parts  on  the  line  a,  b,  set  off  to  the  point 
h,  and  through  h,  draw  at  right  angles  to  f,  g, 
the  line  i,  i.  From  the  point  h,  set  off  to  i,  i,  five 
of  the  parts  in  a,  b,  making  i,  i,  equal  to  ten  of 
these  parts;  divide  i,  i,  into  five  equal  parts;  the 
first  j,  and  fourth  k,  are  the  foci  of  the  elliptical 
ornament,  which  draw  as  shown.  Through  the 
point  4  on  a,  b,  draw  a  line  41,  and  make  the 
distance  m,  1,  equal  to  h,  i;  put  in  the  elliptical 
part  as  shown,  and  finish  as  in  the  diagram,  in 
which  all  the  centers  and  center  lines  are  given. 
Rules  for  describing  the  ellipse  were  given  in 
previous  pages,  that  should  the  student 
experience     any     difficulty     in     describing     the 


218 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT 


elliptical  curves,  he  may  refer  to  those  pages  for 
assistance. 

SOMETHING    ON  ORDERS    OF    ARCHITECTURE 

It  is  not  my  intention  to  enter  deeply  into  a 
description  of  the  orders  of  Architecture  or  to 
give  the  student  a  history  of  their  rise  and 
growth,   or    analyze    their    peculiarities;    it     is 


enough  for  our  purpose,  to  be  able  to  draw 
them,  and  to  give  to  each  order  its  own  pro- 
portion and  arrangement.  Before  we  can  do 
this,  however,  it  will  be  necessary  for  us  to  be 
able  to  lay  off  a  section  of  a  column,  showing 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


219 


the  position  of  flutes  and  fillets  in  plan  and 
elevation.  This  is  brought  out  nicely  in  Fig. 
234,  where  the  dotted  lines  show  the  width  of 
flutes  and  fillets  as  they  will  appear  on  the 
elevation.  Suppose  a  b  Fig.  234  to  be  the 
diameter  of  the  column,  then  bisect  it  in  c;  and 

I 


c       , 

»**  y  %* 

..n.  /  /v — ' 

*«'»  ''     1 

'    '     ~y* 

^^^^^c 

•  o}<^ 

^^^^i 

C  O' 

\                                                        d. 

J 
\ 


Fig.  235. 


draw  c  d.  Make  lines  corresponding  to  these, 
and  from  the  point  c,  with  c  b,  describe  the 
semicircle  a  d  b,  representing  half  the  column. 
Bisect  the  quadrant  a  d,  in  the  point  e,  and 
divide  the  arcs  a  e,  e  d,  by  points  g,  f,  h,  m. 
Mark  the  position  of  these  by  radial  lines  from 
c,  as  in  the  example.  Divide  the  part  a  g  into 
eight  equal  parts;  and  with  three  of  these  as 
radius,  from  the  points  in  the  quadrant,  as  g,  f, 


220 


\HC11I  riX'TUHAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


etc.;  describe  semicircles.  Six  parts  will  thus  be 
given  to  each  flute,  and  two  to  each  fillet;  and 
the  column  will  have  twenty-four  flutes. 

To  describe  the  flutes  in  a  Doric  column  with- 
out the  fillets,  proceed  as  follows:  Lay  out  the 
portion  of  column  as  in  the  previous  example, 
by  dividing  the  quadrant  bee,  Fig.  235,  into  six 


e-    o 


Fig.  236. 


equal  parts,  as  e,  m,  n,  etc.,  giving  to  the  entire 
column  twenty-four  flutes  as  before.  Draw 
radial  lines  from  b.  Divide  a  f  into  four  equal 
parts,  and  lay  one  of  these  on  a  b  produced  to  e; 
from  b,  with  b  e,  describe  a  semicircle  as  e  m  n, 
cutting  the  radial  lines.  Bisect  a  f  in  o,  and 
with  f  o  as  radius,  from  the  points— where  the 
dotted  semicircle  intersects  the  radial  lines — as 


ARCHITKCTURAL    DRAWING    -SELF   TAUGHT 


221 


centers,  describe  the  arcs  as  in  the  example. 
Another  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  236,  which  is 
formed  as  follows:  Make  the  semicircle  a  d  e 
and  divide  the  quadrant  bad  into  five  equal 
parts,  so  as  to  give  twenty  flutes  to  the  column. 
Produce  a  b  to  f;  bisect  a  e  in  h,  and  from  e  lay 
off  e  h  to  m;  join  h  m,  and  with  distance  h  e  lay 


Fig.  237. 

off  on  the  radial  line  b  e  to  n.  From  b,  with  b 
n,  describe  the  dotted  semicircle,  f  n  o.  The 
centers  f  the  flutes  are  placed  where  the  radial 
lines  intersect  this  semicircle.  From  n,  with  n 
m,  describe  the  lines  as  shown,  and  finish  the 
section. 

A  section  of  a  column  having  flat  flutes  and 
fillet  is  shown  at  237.  To  describe  this  draw  the 
semicircle  a  d  c,  and  divide  the  quadrant  bad 
into  six  equal  parts,  divide  a  e  into  five  equal 


222 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 


parts.  With  two  of  these  from  the  radial  line 
lay  off  on  each  side,  as  f  h.  With  one  part  lay 
off  from  c  to  m,  and  from  m,  with  b  m,  describe 
a  semicircle  c  d  a;  complete  the  diagram  as 
shown.     This  will  give  the  depth  of  the  flutes, 


\  , 

'/•• 


one;  the  width  four,  and  the  width  of  the  fillets, 
one. 

In  Fig.  238  we  give  a  method  of  describing 
the  cabled  moulding  with  fillets  between.  Divide 
the  semicircle  a  c  d  in  the  same  proportion  as  in 
Fig.  234,  giving  an  equal  number  as  in  that 
example.  From  b,  with  b  e  on  the  compass, 
describe  the  semicircle  c  f  f.  From  the  points 
where  the  radial  lines  intersect  this,  as  centers, 
with  a  e,  describe  the  curves  as  in  the  example. 

I  will  now  endeavor  to  explain  what  are  known 
as  "The  orders  of  Architecture,"  showing  their 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT  22? 

various  members,  their  proportion,  and  the 
manner  of  arrangement. 

"Order,  in  architecture,"  says  an  authority, 
"is  a  system  or  assemblage  of  parts  subject  to 
certain  uniform  established  proportions,  regu- 
lated by  the  office  each  part  has  to  perform. 
An  order  may  be  said  to  be  the  genus,  whereof 
the  species  are  Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian 
and  Composite;  and  consists  of  two  essential 
parts;  a  column  and  an  entablature." 

These  again  are  subdivided,  the  first  into 
three  parts,  namely:  the  base,  the  shaft  and  the 
capital;  the  second  also  into  three  parts,  namely: 
the  architrave  or  chief  beam,  C  Fig.  239,  which 
stands  immediately  on  the  column;  the  frieze  B, 
which  lies  on  the  architrave,  and  the  cornice,  A, 
which  is  the  crowning  or  uppermost  member  of 
the  order.  In  the  subdivisions  certain  horizontal 
members  are  used,  which  from  the  curved  form 
of  their  edges  are  called  mouldings,  the  con- 
struction of  which  depends  on  a  certain  knowl- 
edge of  geometry.  This  application  may  be 
seen  in  the  illustration;  thus  a  is  the  ogee,  b,  the 
cornice,  c  the  ovolo,  d  the  cavetto,  which  with 
fillets  compose  the  cornice,  f  f  the  facia. 

The  capital  of  the  column  consists  of  the 
upper  members  or  abacus,  g,  the  ovolo  moulding 


!^4  ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT 


PLATE  14. 

This  plate  shows  an  elevation  for  a  cheap  book- 
case suited  for  the  cottage  under  consideration. 
The  end  elevation  is  also  shown  with  the  face  of 
drawers  laid  off.  The  scheme  for  a  box  stall 
shown  in  the  drawing  is  somewhat  out  of  the 
usual  course,  but  may  be  found  very  convenient 
in  stable  construction. 


Plat 


J 


'A 


m 


ARCHITECTURAL    I) HAWING    SELF  TAUGHT  2W25 

c,  the  astragal  i  i,  and  the  neck  h.  The  base 
consists  of  the  torus  k,  and  the  plinth  1.  The 
character  of  an  order  is  displayed,  not  only  in  its 
columns  but  in  its  general  forms  and  details, 
whereof  the  column  is,  as  it  were,  the  regulator; 
the  expression  being  of  strength,  grace,  elegance, 
lightness,  or  richness.  Though  a  building  be 
without  columns  it  is  nevertheless  said  to  be  of 
an  order,  if  its  details  be  regulated  according  to 
the  method  prescribed  for  such  order. 

In  all  the  orders  a  similar  unit  of  reference  is 
adopted  for  the  construction  of  their  various 
parts.  Thus,  the  lower  diameter  of  the  column 
is  taken  as  the  proportional  measure  of  all  the 
other  parts  and  members,  for  which  it  is  subdi- 
vided into  sixty  parts,  called  minutes,  or  into 
two  modules  of  thirty  minutes  each.  Being  pro- 
portional measures,  modules  and  minutes  are 
not  fixed  ones  like  feet  and  inches,  but  are  vari- 
able as  to  the  actual  dimensions  which  they 
express  —  larger  or  smaller  according  to  the 
actual  size  of  the  diameter  of  the  column.  For 
instance,  if  the  diameter  be  just  five  feet,  a 
minute  being  one-sixtieth,  will  be  exactly  one 
inch.  Therefore,  before  commencing  to  draw 
an  elevation  of  any  one  of  the  orders,  the 
diameter  of  the  column  must  be  determined,  and 


226  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


Fig.  239. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  2£7 

from  that  form  a  scale  of  equal  parts,  by  sixty 
divisions,  then  lay  off  the  widths  and  heights  of 
the  different  members  according  to  the  propor- 
tions of  the  required  order  as  marked  on  the 
body  or  on  the  sides  of  the  illustrations. 

Fig.  239  presents  an  illustration  of  the  Tuscan 
order,  considered  by  architects  as  a  spurious  or 
plain  sort  of  Doric,  and  hardly  entitled  to  remark 
as  a  distinct  order.  E  in  the  frieze  correspond- 
ing to  the  triglyph,  illustrates  still  further  the 
connection  of  the  two  orders;  but  by  many 
architects  this  member  is  not  introduced.  No.  1 
is  an  elevation  of  capital  and  entablature,  No.  2 
of  the  base,  and  No.  3  of  a  detached  capital. 
Our  example  is  constructed  according  to  the 
rules  given  by  Vincent  Scamozzi. 

Examples  of  two  capitals  are  given,  differing 
merely  in  the  number  of  mouldings  in  the  abacus. 

In  fact,  this  introduction  of  simple  mouldings 
is  about  the  only  variety  allowable  in  the  order. 
Ornament  is  not  admitted,  nor  are  the  pillars 
ever  fluted. 

A  slightly  convex  curvature,  or  entasis,  is 
given  in  execution  to  the  outline  of  the  shaft  of 
a  column,  by  classic  architects,  just  sufficient  to 
counteract  and  correct  its  appearance,  or  fancied 
appearance,  of  curvature  in  a  contrary  direction 


228  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


Fig.  240. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF    TAUGHT  229 

(i.e.,  concavely),  which  might  else  take  place, 
and  cause  the  middle  of  the  shaft  to  appear 
thinner  than  it  really  is. 

No.  4  represents  the  form  of  a  half  column 
from  the  Pantheon  at  Rome.  In  No.  5  another 
example  of  entasis,  the  lower  third  of  the  shaft 
is  uniformly  cylindrical;  the  two  upper  thirds 
are  divided  into  seven  equal  parts.  On  the 
semicircle  shown  in  the  figure,  is  a  chord  cut  off 
parallel  to  the  diameter,  the  length  of  which  is 
fifty-two  parts  only  one-half  being  shown. 
Divide  the  part  a  b  of  the  circumference 
between  the  diameter  and  chord  into  seven 
equal  parts,  and  draw  parallel  lines  from  each 
division  to  those  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
column,  which  will  give  the  diameter  of  the 
shaft  at  each  division;  by  increasing  the  number 
of  the  divisions,  more  diameters  for  different 
parts  of  the  shaft  may  be  found. 

Fig.  240  exhibits  an  example  of  the  Doric 
order,  from  the  temple  of  Minerva  in  the  island 
of  Egina.  The  dimensions  are  given  in  parts  of 
the  diameter,  as  in  the  preceding  example,  and 
the  same  capital  letters  denote  corresponding 
parts.  No.  1  is  an  elevation  of  the  capital  and 
the  entablature.  No.  2  of  the  base,  and  a  part 
of  the  Podium.     No.  3  shows  the  forms  of  the 


230  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

flutes  at  the  top  of  the  shaft,  and  No.  4  at  the 
base.  No.  5  the  outline  of  the  capital  on  an 
enlarged  scale. 

The  Doric  order  may  be  said  to  be  the 
original  of  the  Greek  orders,  of  which  there  are 
properly  but  three;  the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corin- 
thian, which  differ  in  the  proportion  of  their  parts 
and  in  some  of  their  ornaments  and  mouldings. 
Of  the  Doric,  the  mutules  a  a,  the  triglyphs  b  b, 
the  guttae  or  drops  d  d  of  the  entablature,  the 
echinus  f  and  the  annulets  g  g  of  the  capital, 
may  be  considered  characteristic.  With  regard 
to  the  arrangement  of  triglyphs,  one  is  placed 
over  every  column  and  one  or  more  inter- 
mediately over  every  inter-column — a  span 
between  two  columns — at  such  a  distance  from 
each  other  that  the  metopes  c,  or  spaces  between 
the  triglyphs,  are  square. 

In  the  best  Greek  examples  of  the  Doric  order 
there  is  only  a  single  triglyph  over  each  inter- 
column.  One  peculiarity  of  the  Grecian  Doric 
frieze  is,  that  the  end  triglyphs,  instead  of  being 
like  the  others  in  the  same  axis  or  central  line 
as  the  column  beneath,  are  placed  quite  up  to 
the  edge  or  outer  angle  of  the  frieze.  The 
mutules  are  thin,  plates  or  shallow  blocks 
attacned    to    the    under   side   of    soffit    of    the 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT  231 

corona,  over  each  triglyph  and  each  motope, 
with  the  former  of  which  they  correspond  in 
breadth,  and  their  soffits,  or  under  surfaces,  are 
wrought  into  three  rows  of  guttae  or  drops, 
conical  or  otherwise  shaped,  each  row  consisting 
of  six  guttae,  or  the  same  number  as  those 
beneath  each  triglyph.  Though  a  few  excep- 
tions to  the  contrary  exist,  the  shaft  of  the  Doric 
column  was  generally  what  is  technically  called 
fluted.  The  number  of  channels  or  flutes  is 
either  sixteen  or  twenty,  afterwards  increased  in 
the  other  circles  to  twenty-four,  for  they  are 
invariably  of  an  even  number,  capable  of  being 
divided  by  four,  so  that  there  shall  always  be  a 
center  flute  on  each  side  of  the  column. 

Fig.  241  presents  an  example  of  the  Ionic 
order,  taken  from  the  temple  of  Minerva  Nolias 
at  Athens.  No.  i  is  an  elevation  of  capital  ana 
entablature,  No.  2  the  base,  No.  3  is  a  half  of 
the  plan  of  the  column  at  the  base  and  the  top; 
No.  4  an  elevation  of  the  side  of  the  capital. 
In  the  proportions  of  its  shaft,  which  are  more 
slender,  and  the  addition  of  a  base,  it  differs 
from  the  Doric;  but  the  capital  is  the  indicial 
mark  of  the  order  by  which  it  is  immediately 
recognized.  It  is  far  more  complex  and  irregular 
than   the    other   orders  of   capitals;    instead   of 


232  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


PLATE  15. 

Plate  15  exhibits  an  odd  piece  of  furniture, 
termed  a  "kitchen  desk."  Twelve  students  can 
sit  around  this  desk  and  work  with  ease.  The 
elevations  show  the  manner  of  finish,  with 
drawers  on  top  of  case  under  the  desk  top,  and 
doors  below,  that  cover  shelves,  intended  for 
books  or  other  similar  materials. 


., 


Plhte.15. 

c 

3 

1 

-    - 

* 

-D — 

)ESt\ 

. 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING  SELF  TAUGHT     233 

showing  four  equal  skies,  it  exhibits  two  fronts, 
with  spirals  or  volutes  parallel  to  the  architrave 
and  narrowed,  baluster  sides  (No.  4),  as  they  are 
termed,  beneath  the  architrave. 

When  a  colonnade  was  continued  in  front  and 
along  the  flanks  of  the  building,  this  form  of 
capital  occasioned  an  offensive  irregularity;  for, 
while  all  the  other  columns  on  the  flanks 
showed  the  volutes,  the  end  one  showed  the 
baluster  side.  It  was  necessary  that  the  end 
column  should,  therefore,  have  two  adjoining 
volute  faces,  which  was  effected  by  placing  the 
volute  at  the  angle  diagonally,  so  as  to  attain 
their  two  voluted  surfaces  placed  immediately 
back  to  back.  This  same  diagonal  disposition 
of  the  volutes  is  employed  for  all  capitals  alike, 
in  Roman  and  Italian  examples  of  this  order. 

The  capital  admits  of  great  diversity  of 
character  and  decoration — it  sometimes  is  with- 
out necking,  sometimes  with;  which  may  either 
be  plain  or  decorated,  to  suit  the  entire  design. 
The  capital  may  also  be  modified  in  its  pro- 
portions, first  as  regards  its  general  proportion 
to  the  column;  secondly,  as  regards  the  size  of 
the  volutes  compared  with  the  width  of  the  face. 
In  the  best  Greek  examples  the  volutes  are 
much  bolder  than  in  the   Roman.     The  spirals 


234  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


iyyyyyyyijyiyiwiwiM.'ji.  %%•%  %•  %  w.'ff 


a 


'jmgRwgp 


Fl«l. 


Fig.  241. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT  235 

also  of  the  volutes  may  be  either  single  or 
maniold,  and  the  eye  or  center  of  the  spiral 
may  be  made  larger  or  smaller,  flat  or  convex, 
or  curved  as  a  rosette. 

Fig.  242  represents  an  example  of  the  Corin- 
thian order,  from  the  Arch  of  Hadrian,  at 
Athens.  This  order  is  distinguished  from  the 
Ionic,  more  by  its  deep  and  foliated  capital  than 
by  its  porportions — the  columns  of  both  have 
bases  differing  but  little  from  each  other,  and 
their  shafts  are  fluted  in  the  same  manner. 

Although  the  order  itself  is  the  most  delicate 
and  lightest  of  the  three,  the  capital  is  the 
largest,  being  considerably  more  than  a  diameter 
in  height,  varying  in  different  examples  from 
one  to  one  and  a  half  diameter;  upon  the 
average  about  a  diameter  and  a  quarter. 

The  capital  has  two  rows  of  leaves,  eight  in 
each  row,  so  disposed  that  of  the  taller  ones, 
composing  the  upper  row,  one  comes  in  the 
middle,  beneath  each  face  of  the  abacus,  and  the 
lower  leaves  alternate  with  the  upper  ones, 
coming  between  the  stems  of  the  latter;  so  that 
in  the  first  or  lower  tier  of  leaves  there  is  in  the 
middle  of  each  face  a  space  between  two  leaves 
occupied  by  the  stem  of  the  central  face,  above 
them.     Over  these  two  rows  is  a  third  series  of 


236  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


Fig.  242. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT  237 

eight  leaves,  turned  so  as  to  support  the  small 
volutes  which,  in  turn,  support  the  angles  of  the 
abacus.  Besides  these  outer  volutes,  which  are 
invariably  turned  diagonally,  as  in  the  four-faced 
Ionic  capital,  there  are  two  smaller  ones,  termed 
caulicoli,  which  meet  each  other  beneath  a 
flower  on  the  face  of  the  abacus.  The  abacus 
itself  is  not,  properly  speaking,  a  square, 
although  it  may  be  said  to  be  so  in  its  general 
form.  But  instead  of  being  straight,  the  sides 
of  the  abacus  are  concave  in  plan,  being  curved 
outwards  so  as  to  produce  a  sharp  point  at  each 
corner,  which  is  usually  cut  off. 

The  proper  Corinthian  base  differs  from  that 
of  the  usual  Ionic  or  Attic,  in  having  two  smaller 
scotiae,  separated  by  two  astragals;  however, 
both  kinds  are  employed  indiscriminately.  The 
shaft  is  fluted,  in  general,  similarly  to  that  of  the 
Ionic  column,  but  sometimes  the  flutes  are 
cabled,  as  it  is  called;  that  is,  the  channels  are 
hollowed  out  for  only  about  two-thirds  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  shaft  and  the  remainder  cut 
so  that  each  channel  has  the  appearance  of 
being  partly  filled  up  by  a  round  staff  or  a  piece 
of  rope,  hence  the  term  cabling. 

The  cornice  is  very  much  higher  than  in  the 
other  orders,  which  makes  more  projection  also. 


238  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

From  this  greatly  increased  depth  of  cornice, 
it  consists  of  a  great  number  of  mouldings 
beneath  the  corona,  for  that  and  the  cymatium 
over  it  invariably  retain  their  places  as  crowning 
members  of  the  whole  series  of  mouldings.  In 
the  illustration  square  blocks  or  dentels  are 
introduced,  but  often  to  the  dentels  is  added  a 
row  of  modillions  immediately  beneath  and  sup- 
porting the  corona.  These  modillions  are 
ornamental  blocks,  curved  in  their  under  surface 
somewhat  after  the  manner  of  the  letter  S  laid 
on  its  edge,  and  between  them  and  the  dentels, 
also  below  the  latter,  are  other  mouldings, 
sometimes  cut,  at  others  left  plain.  Sometimes 
a  plain,  uncut  dentel  band  is  substituted  for 
dentels;  sometimes,  in  simpler  cornices,  that  is 
omitted  altogether  and  plainer  blocks  are 
employed  instead  of  modillions;  or  else  both 
dentels  and  modillions  are  omitted.  The  dentel 
is  not  peculiar  to  this  order,  but  is  considered  as 
more  properly  belonging  to  the  Ionic. 

The  composite  order  is  very  much  akin  to  the 
Corinthian,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  Roman 
Corinthian.  It  is  frequently  formed  with  square 
plinths  or  pedestals  beneath  the  column.  The 
base  is  nearly  like  those  of  the  Doric  and  Ionic. 
The  shaft  is  channeled  with  twenty-four  flutings 


ARCHITECT!  HAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAl'GHT 


2S9 


separated  by  fillets. 
The  capital  consists  of 
two  rows  of  acanthus 
leaves,  eight  in  each 
row;  the  upper  row  be- 
ing placed  over  the 
meeting  points  of  those 
in  the  lower  row.  Four 
spiral  volutes  in  each 
face  spring  from  two 
bunches  of  acanthus 
leaves;  and  twro  of  them 
are  so  connected  at  the 
corners  as  to  support 
the  abacus  of  the  cap- 
ital. (See  Fig.  243.) 
Each  face  of  the  aba- 
cus, besides  being 
moulded  into  an  ovolo 
form,  is  a  slight  differ- 
ence between  the  Cor- 
inthian and  Composite. 
The  Corinthian  archi- 
trave   is    divided    into 

three  facias,  the  Composite  into  two;  the  facias 
being  in  both  cases  separated  from  another  by 
small  enriched  mouldings. 


Fig-  -43- 


240  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


PLATE   16. 

Plate  16  shows  sections  and  plans  of  windows, 
for  wood  and  for  brick  buildings,  with  weights 
where  the  mullion  is  narrow  and  will  not  admit 
of  two  weights  passing  each  other.  One  section 
shows  the  manner  of  constructing  the  angle  of 
a  bay  window  where  boxes  and  weights  are 
required.  This  is  a  very  useful  plate  for  the 
young  draftsman. 


•JJ3T 


J     Af  V! 


/ID  1^8   /!CH  an  A 


Esssssig 


HL 


TEBSSSSg 


PUME.lt 


pE 


PLAN  OF  WINDOWS    FOR  W  OOD  BU  I  LD!  I 


& 


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asssnssi 


ssssgasfl 


AND  FO(\    BF^ICK, 


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m 


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PLAIN  ?F  MULLI?NS 

|*|*TH9D?F  HANGING 
W6I6HT'"WARR?W 

MULLI9N 


- 

JUM 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF    TAUGHT  241 

The  frieze  is  enriched  nearly  all  over  with 
sculptures  or  other  ornaments.  The  cornice, 
besides  a  number  of  small  enriched  mouldings 
above  and  below  the  corona,  has  a  row  of  those 
square  blocks  which  obtain  the  name  of  dentils. 
The  Composite  has  mutules  on  the  soffit,  or 
underside  of  the  corona,  like  the  Doric;  but  the 
Corinthian  has  peculiar  ornaments,  called 
modillions.  Between  every  two  modillions, 
along  the  under  side  of  the  corona,  is  an  enriched 
panel. 

If  the  student  has  followed  the  foregoing 
closely,  he  will,  by  this  time,  not  only  be  a  fair 
draftsman,  but  he  will  have  obtained  a  knowl- 
edge of  general  architecture  and  construction 
that  will  make  of  him  a  valuable  and  efficient 
mechanic,  and  one  whose  services  will  be  sought 
after  and  paid  for  at  a  good  rate. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

A  good  draftsman  is  always  supposed  to  be  a 
good  letterer,  and  as  every  drawing  must  have 
a  brief  description  of  some  sort,  and  as  it  is 
sometimes  a  little  puzzling  to  decide  on  what 
style  of  letter  to  employ,  I  thought  I  would 
give  a  few  examples,  so  that  the  draftsman  may 


242  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

have  something  to  aid  him  in  deciding.  Orna- 
mental letters  had  better  be  avoided  until  such 
time  as  the  draftsman  feels  he  can  make  them 
with  ease  and  celerity,  and  plain  lettering  had 
best  be  the  rule;  however,  I  give  a  few  examples 

ABCDEFCHI  JKLMNO 
PQRSTUVWXYZ&c 

Fig.  244. 

of  both  plain  and  ornamental,  so  that  the  student 
can  determine  for  himself  the  styles  of  letter  he 
will  employ. 

A  simple  block  letter  is  shown  in  Fig.  244, 
with  one  letter  G  enlarged  at  the  end.  These 
letters,  as  will  be  seen,  may  be  made  in  single 
or   double   line,    as    may   be   desired.      Figures 

1234567890 

Fig.  245. 

appearing  in  the  heading,  Fig.  245,  should  be 
the  same  size  as  the  letters,  but  as  dimensions 
on  the  drawing  they  should  not  be  more  than  % 
in.  deep,  nor  less  than  A  in.  When  dimensions 
are  put  upon  a  drawing,  the  distance  to  which 
they  should  extend  should  be  carefully  shown 
by  dotted  lines,  with  arrow-heads  at  the  extremi- 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  243 

ties,  keeping  the  fractions  level,  and  with  the 
small  figures  two-thirds  the  size  of  the  large 
ones.  The  feet  should  be  marked  by  a  single 
accent  thus  ',  and  the  inches  by  a  double  accent 
thus  ",  with  a  full  stop  on  the  line  between  the 
figure.  If  the  dimensions  consist  of  an  even 
number  of  feet,  then  inches  should  be  repre- 
sented by  o".  The  omission  has  led  to  serious 
mistakes  in  practical  work,  which  should  always 
be  guarded  against,  and,  notwithstanding  the 
examples  of  text-books  and  the  practice  of 
some  examiners,  this  is  an  important  point 
always  observed  by  practical  draftsmen. 

After  inking  in  all  the  figures,  pencil  out  the 
heading  very  carefully,  making  the  letters  a 
little  thicker  than  those  used  in  Fig.  244;  G,  R, 
S.  C,  and  M  will  be  found  the  most  difficult. 
The  distance  apart  of  the  letters  should  not  be 
quite  uniform,  but  should  be  such  as  will  look 
uniform.  For  example,  as  I  between  M  and  X 
would  require  more  than  the  usual  space  to  look 
right;  on  the  other  hand,  a  T  between  L  and  J 
would  require  to  slightly  overlap  to  give  the 
right  effect.  The  junction  points  A,  M,  X,  Y, 
and  W  should  not  be  sharp  but  the  same  width 
as  the  thickness  of  the  strokes. 

Leave  >2  in.  between  the  words  of  the  heading. 


^44  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT 

It  is  then  much  easier  to  read  than  if  cramped 
closer  together  or  spaced  wider  apart. 
Remember  that  the  printing — being  thicker — 
will  take  longer  to  dry,  and  be  careful  not  to 
use  the  india  rubber  too  soon.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  guide  lines  for  the  square  and 
center  lines  for  the  circle,  as  described  above, 
have  not  been  inked  in,  as  they  would  spoil  the 

ABCDEFGH IJ 
K  L  M  N  0  PQRST 
UVWXYZ 

Fig.  246. 

effect  of  the  drawing,  but  on  machine  drawings 
it  is  usual  to  put  the  center  lines  in  red,  using  a 
little  crimson  lake  for  the  purpose. 

Another  block  letter  is  shown  at  Fig.  246, 
which  is  easy  to  make  and  quite  effective.  This, 
and  the  three  following  examples,  are  taken 
from  "The  Draftsman,"  an  excellent  little 
journal  for  the  young  draftsman,  as  it  is  full  of 
useful  matter,  and  will  help  him  along  materially. 
The  journal  is  published  monthly,  in  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  and  only  costs  one  dollar  a  year. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT  24.5 

The  letters  shown  at  Fig.  247  have  some  pre- 
tentions to  ornamentation,  but  on  the  whole  they 
are  very  simple  and  easy  to  make. 

j\B  CD  EFG  JU  J  KL  M  N  Q 
PQRSTUVWXYZ 
12  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  0 

Pig.  247- 

Fig.  248  exhibits  a  sort  of  Runic  letter  that  is 
quite  ornamental  and  would  require  considerable 
practice  before  it  could  be  formed  nicely. 

31R3L/lbfl  ©  p  $, 

Fig.  248. 

The  letters  shown  at  Fig.  249  are  good  old 
style  characters  and  are  always  in  order  for 
almost  any  kind  of  work. 


21G  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

The  two  styles  of  open  letters  shown  in  Fig. 
250  may  sometimes  be  found  useful,  but  as  a  rule 
I  do  not  recommend  this  style  of  letter;  it  does 
not  "show  up"  enough  for  the  trouble;  at  the 
same  time,  it  offers  excellent  practice  for  the 
draftsman. 

These  examples  are  quite  sufficient  for  my 
purpose,  but  the  student  will  do  well  to  try  his 

ABCDEFGHI 
JKLMNOPQ  R 

STUVWXYZ 

Fig.  249 

hand  on  other  styles,  many  of  which  he  can  find 
in  public  prints,  headings,  and  other  places. 

While  I  do  not  advise  the  young  student  to 
attempt  the  coloring  of  drawings,  yet,  if  he 
advances  himself  sufficiently  to  be  able  to  make 
a  good  drawing,  there  is  no  reason  why  he 
should  not  attempt  to  color  some  of  his  work, 
and  to  aid  him  in  doing  so  I  submit  for  his 
guidance  the  following  hints  and  suggestions 
regarding  this  work.     The  first  thing  to  do  when 


ARCHITKCTUHAL    DRAWING    SELF    TAUGHT 


2±1 


coloring  i  s  in- 
tended is  to  see 
that  the  paper 
has  all  the  super- 
fluous sizing  re- 
moved by  being 
sponged  lightly 
with  clean  water. 
The  paper,  and 
everything 
about  it,  must 
be  kept  perfect- 
ly clean.  Line 
off  the  spaces, 
with  very  fine 
pencil  marks, 
that  are  to  be 
tinted.  Never 
use  the  eraser 
on  the  part  to 
be  tinted,  either 
before  or  after 
tinting.  Try  the 
tinting  process 
on  a  piece  of 
waste  paper  un- 
til   the      proper 


«fi 


n 


£=S 


^ 


© 


RJ 


^  M'n 


(L  M^ 


(ED) 


©  gg) 


&Q 


Ms 


^'48  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELE    TAUGHT 


PLATE    17. 

This  plate  shows  a  basement  window  in  a 
stone  wall,  the  elevation  showing  the  outside  of 
the  window,  and  the  section  exhibits  the  manner 
of  constructing  the  frame  and  placing  the  sashes. 
This  is  drawn  to  a  scale  of  ^  of  an  inch  to  the 
foot 


T 


L 


PLATEJ7. 


T2NE.  BASEMENT  WINDOW 


■  jq 


,; 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  *240 

tint  is  obtained,  before  applying  to  the  drawing. 
Dark  tints  are  formed  by  applying  a  number  of 
light  ones  over  each  other,  but  a  second  tint 
should  not  be  applied  until  the  first  one  is 
perfectly  dry.  Always  finish  tinting  one  portion 
of  drawing  before  leaving  it.  Otherwise  it  will 
be  cloudy.  See  that  the  paper  is  damp  before 
you  begin  to  tint.  Ink  in  all  lines  after  the 
tinting  is  completed  and  the  drawing  is  perfectly 
dry. 

The  colors  used  for  representing  wood,  iron, 
and  other  materials,  are  as  follows:  For  soft 
pine,  a  very  pale  tint  of  sienna;  for  hard  pine, 
burnt  sienna  with  a  little  carmine  added;  for  oak, 
a  mixture  of  burnt  sienna  and  yellow  ochre  is 
used.  Mahogany  is  represented  by  burnt  sienna 
and  a  portion  of  dragon's  blood.  For  walnut, 
dragon's  blood  and  burnt  umber  are  used.  For 
bricks,  burnt  sienna  and  carmine  make  a  good 
color.  Gray  stones  are  represented  by  a  mixture 
of  black  and  white,  with  a  little  Prussian  blue 
and  carmine  added— pale  ink  alone  is  sometimes 
used  for  stone  work.  Brown  freestone  is  rep- 
resented by  burnt  sienna,  carmine,  and  inic 
Wrought  iron  is  represented  by  a  light  tint  ot 
Prussian  blue,  and  cast  iron  by  a  gray  tint  com- 
posed of  black,  white,  and  a  little  indigo.     Brass 


250  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

is  tinted  with  gamboge.  Gamboge,  slightly 
mixed  with  vermilion,  makes  a  good  color  for 
copper.  Silver  is  represented  by  an  almost 
invisible  blue. 

Many  draftsmen  have  a  natural  talent  for 
using  suitable  colors,  and  putting  them  on  in  a 
suitable  manner,  but  others  must  go  through  the 
drudgery  of  careful  practice  according  to  rule. 
A  perfectly  uniform  tint  such  as  desired  on  an 
engineer's  drawing  is  not  required  on  an 
architect's  drawing,  and  still  less  on  that  for  use 
by  a  builder;  but  unless  the  draftsman  learns 
first  to  lay  on  a  flat  and  uniform  wash  of  any 
tint,  he  is  not  likely  to  be  able  to  put  on  an 
appropriate  rough  tint.  For  water-color  sketch- 
ing a  flat  tile  with  shallow  recesses  is  suitable 
for  mixing  the  colors,  but  this  is  quite  unsuited 
for  a  draftsman's  use.  He  should  invariably  use 
the  nests  of  round  saucers  fitting  one  on  the 
other,  and  of  a  size  to  hold  as  much  color  as 
would  be  required  to  completely  finish  the  color- 
ing of  any  one  material  on  one  sheet.  The 
saucers  should  be  kept  covered  while  in  use, 
and  washed  out  when  done  with.  The  lightest 
tints  should,  as  a  rule,  be  put  on  first,  and  the 
brush  should  always  be  of  ample  size.  Color 
brushes     should    be    kept    scrupulously    clean, 


IRCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  251 

never  put  in  the  mouth,  always  washed  after 
using,  the  surplus  moisture  shaken  out,  and  then 
put  away  in  the  box  and  not  laid  on  a  dusty 
shelf  to  dry. 

A  little  practice  in  the  laying  of  colors  one 
over  another  will  be  used  for  impressing  on  the 
memory  the  general  effect  of  combination,  and 
also  a  knowledge  of  the  primary  colors  and 
their  secondaries.  Nearly  all  water-colors  are 
transparent,  and  a  medium  tint  of  any  one  color, 
if  laid  over  another  after  it  is  dry,  will  allow  the 
first  color  to  show  through.  A  more  intimate 
combination  may  be  made  by  mixing  the  colors 
together  in  the  same  palette  and  putting  them 
on  with  the  brush  in  one  operation. 

Wipe  the  brush  lightly  on  the  edge  of  the 
saucer  to  remove  the  surplus  color,  and  hold  it 
as  described  for  a  lead  pencil  when  about  to 
draw  a  vertical  line;  commence  at  the  top  left 
hand  of  the  space  to  be  colored;  pass  the  brush 
downwards,  then  along  the  top,  then  down  by 
short  strokes  from  the  top  to  the  length  of  the 
first  stroke,  and  so  carry  the  color  downwards 
for  the  whole  width,  finishing  at  the  bottom 
right-hand  corner. 

To  produce  good  and  uniform  coloring,  never 
damp  the  paper  before  commencing,    refill  the 


252  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT 

brush  often,  gently  wiping  it  on  the  edge  of  the 
saucer  each  time.  The  margin  of  the  color  must 
not  dry  before  the  next  stroke  reaches  it,  and  a 
part  once  colored  must  never  be  retouched, 
even  though  it  looks  uneven.  Retouching  is  a 
fruitful  source  of  failure;  for  color,  looking 
uneven  when  wet,  may  dry  even,  but  if  touched 
again  when  partially  dried  it  is  certain  to  show 
uneven  when  dry. 

There  is  an  advantage  in  having  plenty  of 
color  in  the  brush,  but  when  nearing  the  bottom 
boundary  the  amount  must  be  reduced,  so  that 
there  is  not  a  pool  left  at  the  lower  corner.  By 
regulating  the  amount  of  color  any  slight  excess 
may  be  picked  up  with  the  brush  by  simply 
raising  it  slowly,  point  last,  from  the  corner. 
The  brush  should  not  be  wiped  in  any  way,  but 
simply  washed  in  clean  water,  when  done  with, 
or  before  use  with  another  color.  It  will  soon 
be  found  that  with  a  given  amount  of  color  in 
the  brush  more  or  less  of  it  may  be  left  behind 
as  the  brush  is  allowed  to  trail  or  is  used  side- 
ways, and  it  is  by  unconscious  adjustments  of 
this  kind  that  a  good  colorist  produces  uniform 
results. 

There  are  certain  tints  employed  by  architects 
to  designate  works  of  various  kinds,  and  I  give 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF  TAUGHT  253 

them  herewith  so  that  the  student  may  have 
them  within  reach  if  he  has  occasion  for  their 
use.  It  must  be  understood,  however,  that 
nearly  every  drawing  office  of  any  note  has 
rules  of  its  own  for  marking  and  coloring 
drawings,  so  that  the  rules  given  herewith  may 
differ  materially  from  many  others  in  vogue. 

Banks  (Steep) — Shaded  with  graduated  warm 
sepia,  darkest  at  top  of  bank;  vertical  hill- 
shading  in  India  ink  or  dark  sepia. 

Brass — Gamboge  with  yellow  ochre  or  burnt 
sienna. 

Bricks  (Blue) — Elevation,  indigo  and  India 
ink;  section,  indigo.  (Red) — Elevation,  light  red 
(pale);  section,  India  red  (dark). 

Brickwork  (New) — Elevation,  Roman  ochre; 
section,  crimson  lake.  (Old) — Elevation,  India 
ink  (pale);  section,  India  ink  (dark). 

Buildings  (Brick  or  Stone)— Crimson  lake. 
(Wood) — Sepia. 

Cast  Iron — Payne's  grey;  neutral  tint. 

Chain — Elevation,  Prussian  blue  (dot  and 
stroke);    section,  no  color. 

Concrete — Sepia  with  black  marks;  or  indigo, 
or  Payne's  grey  with  black  marks  and  small 
light  spots  left. 

Copper — Gamboge      with      lake;      elevation, 


c2.5-i  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

crimson  iake  and  burnt  sienna;  section,  crimson 
lake  and  burnt  sienna  (dark). 

Earth — Burnt  umber  or  warm  sepia,  left 
jagged   at   edges;    or  sepia,  light  and   dark. 

Electric-bell  Wires— Yellow. 

Fields  and  Vacant  Lands — White. 

Fir  and  Deal  (rough) — Elevation,  burnt  sienna 
or  gamboge;  section,  burnt  sienna  (edged  round 
and  hatched). 

Footpaths  (Flagged) — Yellow  ochre. 

Glass — Green;  Prussian  blue;  neutral  tint. 

Glass  Roofs  —  Cross-hatching  of  Prussian 
blue. 

Granite — Purple  madder;  pale  India  ink. 

Greenheart — Elevation,  indigo  and  gamboge; 
section,  indigo  and  gamboge  (dark). 

Gun-metal — Elevation,  Indian  yellow;  section, 
Indian  yellow  (dark). 

Lead — Indigo;  indigo  with  India  ink. 

Leather — Elevation,  burnt  umber  (very  pale); 
section,  burnt  umber  (dark). 

Mahogany — Elevation,  light  red  and  burnt 
sienna;  section,  light  red  and  burnt  sienna  (dark.) 

Meadows  and  Cultivated  Grass— Prussian 
green;  Hooker's  green. 

Oak — Elevation,  burnt  umber  (pale);  section, 
burnt  umber  (dark). 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF  TAUGHT  255 

Pine  and  Spruce  (wrought) — Elevation,  burnt 
sienna  (pale);  section  burnt  sienna  (dark  rings). 

Pipes  (Cold-water) — Prussian  blue.  (Gas) — 
Indigo  with  take.  (Hot-water) — Crimson  lake. 
(Rain-water) — Elevation,  Prussian  blue  (outline); 
section,  Prussian  blue  (outline).  (Soil) — Eleva- 
tion, burnt  sienna;  section,  burnt  sienna  (out- 
line). 

Plaster — Payne's  grey.  Plaster  and  Cement--- 
Elevation,  India  ink  (pale);  section,  India  ink 
(dark). 

Railways — Neutral  tint  between  the  rails  of 
each  track. 

Rope — Elevation,  burnt  sienna  (dot  and 
stroke);  section,  no  color. 

Rosewood — Burnt  sienna  with  lake. 

Sewers  and  Drains — Prussian  blue. 

Skies  (in  perspectives) — Cobalt  blue. 

Slate — Elevation,  Payne's  grey;  section, 
Payne's  grey  (dark). 

Steel — Elevation,  violet  carmine  (very  pale); 
section,  violet  carmine  (dark);  or  indigo  with  a 
little  lake. 

Stone — Yellow  ochre;  gamboge  with  Indian 
red    and    burnt    umber;    sepia;    Prussian    blue. 

Representing  stone  in  section  by  Prussian  blue 
is    to    be    avoided,    though     in     common     use. 


25U  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


PLATE    1 8. 

This  plate  shows  two  elevations  and  sections 
of  windows,  one  designed  for  wooden  build- 
ings, and  the  other  for  brick  buildings.  The 
vertical  sections  of  frames  and  sashes  are  shown 
in  both  cases,  and  the  manner  of  constructing 
the  sills  is  given.  The  segmental  headed 
window  shows  finish  around  the  frame  suited  for 
brick.  Both  frames  show  exterior  finish,  and 
that  designed  for  wood  shows  the  lines  of 
siding  on  one  side.  These  examples  are  drawn 
to  a  scale  of  %  of  an  inch  to  the  foot. 


3ECTl?N«f  WIND^WJ  "K  W«D*»»yr3NF    BUILDINGS 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT  ^.3? 

Prussian  blue  should  be  retained  entirely  for 
wrought-iron  work. 

Stone  Dressings — Elevation,  French  blue 
(very  pale);    section,   French  blue   (dark). 

Streets  (Paved) — Neutral  tint. 

Timber  (Existing)  —  Elevation,  India  ink 
(pale);    section,   India  ink  (etched). 

Tubes  (Speaking) — Green. 

Water — Elevation,  Prussian  blue  (washed); 
section,  Prussian  blue  (lines).  Water  may  have 
graduated  blue  edges. 

Windows  Inside — Elevation,  French  blue 
(pale);  section,  Hooker's  green,  No.  2  (dark). 

Windows  Outside — Elevation,  Payne's  grey 
(dark);  section,  Hooker's  green,  No.  2  (dark). 

Wrought-iron  (Bright) — Elevation,  Prussian 
blue  (very  pale);  section,  Prussian  blue  (dark). 
(Rough) — Payne's  grey. 

York  and  Soft  Stone — Elevation,  sepia  (very 
pale);  section,  sepia. 

Zinc— Elevation,  French  blue  (very  pale); 
section,  French  blue  (dark). 

Often  various  materials  are  shown  by  the 
manner  in  which  the  sections  of  such  materials 
are  hatched  or  lined  off  as  may  be  seen  by  the 
illustration  shown  at  Fig.  251,  where  a  large 
number  of  sections  are  given.     By  this  method 


258 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 


the  material  is  recognized  by  the  method  of 
hatching,  and  no  color  is  required,  the  whole 
being  done  in  black  and  white. 

It  may  be  necessary  sometimes  for  the  drafts- 
man to  shade  portions  of  his  work,  and,  though 
this  book  does  not    pretend   to  deal    with    the 


fig  251. 

higher  class  of  drawing,  it  may  not  be  out  of 
place  to  say  a  few  words  on  shading,  and  offer  a 
few  rough  illustrations,  showing  how  some 
objects  maybe  shaded  even  by  an  inexperienced 
hand.  The  principles  of  shading  are  very 
simple,  but  do  not  seem  to  be  generally  under- 
stood, even  by  architects.  All  the  exhibition 
drawings  of  an  Architectural  Association  were 


ARCniTECTTRAL    n~UAY\T\T:    SELF   TA1  Mm' 


250 


spoilt  one  year  by  the  roof  shading  being 
reversed,  presumably  in  order  to  comply  with 
some  fancied  natural  requirement.  The  prin- 
ciples are  as  follows:  (i)  The  more  distant  the 
object    the    less    distinct    the   light    and     shade, 


and  vice  versa;  (2)  for  the  sake  of  uniformity 
the  light  is  usually  supposed  to  come  from  the 
left,  and  on  a  drawing  is  generally  taken  as 
coming  down  the  long  side  of  a  45°  set  square, 
when  one  edge  is  placed  diagonally  on  the  paper 
and  at  right  angles  to  it;  (3)  on  inclined  surface 
in  the  light  the  farthest  part  is  the  darkest  and 
in  the  shade  the  nearest  part  is  the  darkest;  I4) 
cylindrical  surfaces  follow  the  same  rules,  but 
on  the  right  hand  or  lower  sides  the  effect 
appears  as  though  some  reflected  light  were 
shown    towards    the   edge.     The  accompanying 


260  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT 

illustrations,   Fig.   252,  show  the  application   of 
these  rules. 

When  ink  lines  to  any  considerable  extent 
have  to  be  erased,  a  small  piece  of  damped  soft 
sponge  may  be  rubbed  over  them  till  they 
disappear.  As,  however,  this  process  is  apt  to 
discolor  the  paper,  the  sponge  must  be  passed 
through  clean  water,  and  applied  again  to  take 
up  the  straggling  ink.  For  small  erasures  of  ink 
lines,  a  sharp  erasing  knife  should  be  used;  this 
is  an  instrument  with  a  short  triangular  blade 
fastened  to  a  wooden  or  ivory  handle.  A  sharp 
rounded  pen-blade  applied  lightly  and  rapidly 
does  well,  and  the  surface  may  be  smoothed 
down  by  the  thumb  nail  or  a  paper-knife  handle. 
In  ordinary  working  drawings  a  line  may  readily 
be  taken  out  by  damping  it  with  a  hair  pencil 
and  quickly  applying  the  india  rubber;  and,  to 
smooth  the  surface  so  roughened,  a  light  applica- 
tion of  the  knife  is  expedient.  In  drawings 
intended  to  be  highly  finished,  particular  pains 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  necessity  for 
corrections,  as  everything  of  this  kind  detracts 
from  the  appearance. 

A  little  Prussian  blue,  mixed  with  the  ink 
makes  it  flow  freer  and  adds  to  the  color.  In 
inking  in  on  ordinary  tracing  cloth,  the  student 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   SELF   TAUGHT  261 

will  find  the  ink  will  "creep"  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  lines  will  be  broken.  This  can  be  pre- 
vented if  a  drop  of  ox-gall  be  mixed  with  the 
ink,  but  where  ox-gall  is  not  available,  Prussian 
blue  may  be  substituted,  and  this  will,  to  some 
extent,  work  freer  over  the  cloth. 

As  this  book  is  not  intended  for  making 
finished  draftsmen,  I  have  avoided  in  all  cases — 
except  in  the  orders  of  Architecture — offer- 
ing any  very  elaborate  or  finished  examples, 
as  the  student  can  find  a  number  of  works  in  the 
market  that  will  lead  him  to  a  higher  plane  if  he 
so  determines,  after  he  has  well  mastered  what 
I  have  served  up  to  him.  Neither  have  I 
thought  it  desirable  to  describe  the  method  of 
making  blue  prints,  as  this  method,  or  methods, 
has  been  rendered  over  and  over  again  in  the 
technical  journals,  for  years  past.  If,  however, 
the  student  desires  to  iearn  how  to  make  blue 
prints,  I  would  advise  him  to  purchase  a  copy 
of  "Blue  Print  Making"  by  P.  Reissmann,  which 
can  be  had  from  the  publishers  of  this  book, 
price  25  cents.  This  is  an  excellent  little  work, 
and  goes  into  the  subject  thoroughly. 

It  must  be  understood  that  this  work  is  pre- 
pared purposely  for  the  workman  who  has  no 
time  to  attend  night  school,  or  money  to  spare 


262  ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    SELF   TAUGHT 

to  take  a  course  in  any  one  of  the  excellent 
correspondence  schools;  therefore,  the  illustra- 
tions have  been  left  in  a  plain  state,  so  that  the 
student  would  not  be  frightened  on  the  threshold 
of  his  work  by  fancy  and  elaborate  drawings.  I 
state  this  fact,  partly  to  make  it  easy  for  the 
student,  and  partly  to  disarm  critics,  who  can,  if 
they  are  so  disposed,  find  many  defects  in  the 
illustrations. 


FINIS 


HOUSE    PLAN    SUPPLEMENT 

PERSPECTIVE  VIEWS 
AND   FLOOR  PLANS 

of  Fifty  Low  and 
Medium  Priced  Houses 

Full  and  complete  working  plans  and  specifications 

of  any  of  these  houses  will  be  mailed  at  the 

low  prices  named,  on  the  same  day 

the  order  is  received. 

OTHER    PLANS 

We  illustrate  in  all   books  under  the  authorship  of 

Fred  T.  Hodgson  from  25  to  50  plans,  none 

of    which   are    duplicates   of    those 

illustrated  herein. 

For  Further  Information,  Address  the  Publishers. 


SEARS,  ROEBUCK  &   CO. 

CHICAGO,    ILL.,     U.    S.    A. 


Estimated   Cost 


It  is  impossible  for  any  one  to  estimate  the  cost  of  a 
building  and  have  the  figures  hold  good  in  all  sections 
of  the  country. 

We  do  not  claim  to  be  able  to  do  it. 

The  estimated  cost  of  the  houses  we  illustrate  is 
based  on  the  most  favorable  conditions  in  all  respects 
and  does  not  include  Plumbing  and  Heating. 

Possibly  these  houses  cannot  be  built  by  you  at  tht 
prices  we  name  because  we  have  used  minimum  materia? 
and  labor  prices  as  our  basis. 

The  home  builder  should  consult  the  Lumber 
Dealer,  the  Hardware  Dealer,  and  the  Reliable  Con- 
tractors of  his  town.  Their  knowledge  of  conditions 
in  your  particular  locality  makes  them,  and  them  only, 
capable  of  making  you  a  correct  estimate  of  the  cost. 


OF  WHAT  OUR  PLANS 
CONSIST 

ALL     OF     OUR     PLANS 

Are  accurately  drawn  one-quarter  inch  scale  to  the  foot. 
We  use  only  the  best  quality  heavy  Gallia  Blue  Print 
Paper  No.  1000X,  taking  every  precaution  to  have  all  the 
blue  prints  of  even  color  and  every  line  and  figure  perfect 
and   distinct.     We   furnish  for   a   complete   set  of   plans: 

FRONT  ELEVATION 

REAR      ELEVATION 

LEFT       ELEVATION 

RIGHT    ELEVATION 

ALL    FLOOR    PLANS 
CELLAR    AND    FOUNDATION    PLANS 
ALL  NECESSARY  INTERIOR  DETAILS 

Specifications  consist  of  several  pages  of  typewritten  mat- 
ter, giving  full   instructions  for  carrying   out   the   work. 

We  guarantee  all  plans  and  specifications  to  be  full,  com- 
plete and  accurate  in  every  particular.  Every  plan  being 
designed  and  drawn  by  a  licensed  architect. 

Our  equipment  is  so  complete  that  we  can  mail  to  you  the 
same  day  the  order  is  received,  a  complete  set  of  the  plans 
and  specifications  of  any  house  illustrated  herein. 

Our  large  sales  of  these  plans  demonstrates  to  us  the  wis- 
dom of  making  these  very  low  prices. 


ADDKESS  ALT,  ORDERS   TO 

SEARS,  ROEBUCK  &   CO. 

CHICAGO,    ILL.,    U.    S.    A. 


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Remember 

We  can  mail  out  the  same  day  we  receive  the  order 
any  complete  set  of  working  plans  and  specifications 
we  illustrate  in  this  book. 

Remember  also 

That,  if  you  are  going  to  build,  complete  working; 
plans  and  specifications  always 

Save  Money 

for  both  the  owner  and  contractor. 


They  prevent  mistakes  and  disputes. 
They  save  time  and  money. 

They   tell    you    what  you  will    get    and  what    you 
are  to  do. 


STANDARD  AMERICAN   CYCLOPEDIA 

OF  STEAM  ENGINEERING 

Including  Electricity  for  Engineers.  Boilers,  Steam  Turbines.  Refrigeration. 

Lubrication,  Pumps,  Valve  Setting.  Marine  Engine.  Mechanical 

and  Machine  Design  and   Questions  and  Answers 

(or    Stationary  and   Marine  Engineers. 


By  CALVIN  F.  SWINGLE  and  OTHERS. 

Four  volumes  in  one.  Bound  in  full  Persian  Morocco. 
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This  work  covers  everything  contained  in  the  follow- 
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COMPLETE  EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS  AND 
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PRACTICAL  MECHANICAL  DRAWING  AND 
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Westinghouse.     Retail  price  $2.00. 

DYNAMO  TENDING  FOR  ENGINEERS  AND 
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OF  STEAM  ENGINEERING. 

OUR  SPECIAL  PRICE  $2.78. 
If  by  mail,  postage  extra,  22  cents. 


SEARS,  ROEBUCK  &  COMPANY,    Chicago,  111. 


Standard  American  Locomotive 
=====  Engineering  = 

COMPLETE  IN  ALL  ITS  BRANCHES 

Including  Railroad  Signaling,  Block  Systems,  Breakdowns, 

Valve    Setting,    Air    Brakes,    with    Complete 

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STANDARD  EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS  AND 
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tail price  $1.50. 

MODERN  AIR  BRAKE  PRACTICE,  Its  Use  and 
Abuse,  including  the  new  E.  T.  Equipment.  By  Frank 
H.  Dukesmith.  Retail  price  $1.50.  And  all  the  matter 
contained  in  the  following  two  books,  each  one  of 
which  retails  for  $1.50. 

LOCOMOTIVE  BREAKDOWNS.  THE  W  A  L- 
SCHAERT  VALVE  GEAR.  Making  full  retail  value 
of  the  Standard  American  Locomotive  Engineering,  $11.00. 

A  VERITABLE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  LOCOMO- 
TIVE ENGINEERING,  including  BOILERS, 
VALVES,  VALVE  GEAR  AND  VALVE  SET- 
TING, AIR  BRAKE  PRACTICE,  LOCOMOTIVE 
BREAKDOWNS,  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES 
RAILWAY  SIGNALING.  BLOCK  SYSTEMS, 
QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS,  and  FULLY 
ILLUSTRATED. 

No.  3R9210.  STANDARD  AMERICAN  LOCOMO- 
TIVE ENGINEERING. 

OUR  SPECIAL  PRICE  $2.85. 
If  by  mail,  postage  extra,  22  cents. 

SEARS,  ROEBUCK  &  COMPANY,   Chicago,  111. 


Standard  American   Plumbing 

Hot  Air  and  Hot  ^Water 

Heating 

Steam  and  Gas  Fitting 

By  CLOW  and  DONALDSON. 


Three  volumes  in  one.  Over  600  pages.  Fully  illus- 
trated. Special,  Exclusive  Edition.  Printed  by 
Frederick  J.  Drake  &  Company  expressly  for  Sears, 
Roebuck  &  Company.     Contains: 

PRACTICAL  UP-TO-DATE  PLUMBING.  By  Geo. 
B.  Clow.     Retail  price  $1.50. 

HOT  WATER  HEATING,  STEAM  AND  GAS  FIT- 
TING.    By  William  Donaldson.     Retail  price  $1.50. 

WORKING  DRAWINGS.  Retail  price  $1.50.  Among 
the  subjects  this  valuable  book  treats  of: 

SANITARY  PLUMBING. 

MODERN     HOT     WATER,     HOT     AIR      AND 

STEAM  HEATING. 
STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTING. 
WORKING  DRAWINGS. 

No.  3R9180  STANDARD  AMERICAN  PLUMBING, 
HOT  AIR  AND  HOT  WATER  HEATING, 
STEAM  AND  GAS  FITTING. 


OUR  SPECIAL  PRICE  $1.62. 
If  by  mail,  postage  extra,  21  cents. 


SEARS.  ROEBUCK  &  COMPANY, 
Chicago,  111. 


CYCLOPEDIA 


-OF- 


Bricklaying,  Stone  Masonry,  Concretes, 
Stuccos  and  Plasters 

Covering  Everything  Connected  with  the  Allied  Trades 

By  FRED  T.  HODGSON. 


Three  volumes  in  one.  840  pages.  Fully  illustrated. 
Bound  in  silk  cloth.  Special,  Exclusive  Edition. 
Printed  by  Frederick  J.  Drake  &  Company  expressly 
for  Sears,  Roebuck  &  Company.     Contains: 

THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  BRICKLAYER'S 
AND  MASON'S  ASSISTANT.  By  Fred  T.  Hodg- 
son.    Retail  price  $1.50. 

CONCRETES,  CEMENTS,  MORTARS,  PLASTERS 
AND  STUCCOS.  How  to  Make  and  How  to  Use 
Them.   By  Fred  T.  Hodgson.    Retail  price  $1.50. 

DIAGRAMS     AND     PLATES.     Retail     price     $1.50. 
Bricklaying — Stone      Masonry — Concretes     and     Ce- 
ments— Mortars,  Plastering  and  Stucco  Work. 
There  are  1,000  Illustrations  and  Diagrams. 

No.  3R9130  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  BRICKLAYING, 
STONE  MASONRY,  CONCRETES,  STUCCOS 
AND  PLASTERS. 

OUR  SPECIAL  PRICE  $1.62. 
If  by  mail,  postage  extra,  21  cents. 


SEARS,  ROEBUCK  &  COMPANY, 
Chicago,  111. 


STANDARD  AMERICAN 

GAS  AND  OIL  ENGINE,  AUTOMOBILE  AND  FARM 

ENGINE  GUIDE 


A  Complete  Encyclopedia  of  the  Construction, 
Operation  and  Management  of  Gas  Engines,  Gasoline 
Engines,  Automobiles,  Farm  Engines  and  Traction  En- 
gines, together  with  Complete  Questions  and  Answers. 
By  Stevenson  &  Brookes.  Three  volumes  in  one.  Over 
600  pages.  Fully  illustrated.  Bound  in  Full  Persian 
Morocco,  with  flap,  pocketbook  style.  Special,  Exclu- 
sive Edition.  Printed  by  Frederick  J.  Drake  &  Com- 
pany expressly  for  Sears,  Roebuck  &  Company.  Con- 
tains: 

PRACTICAL  GAS  AND  OIL  ENGINE  HAND 
BOOK,  including  stationary,  marine  and  portable  gas 
and  gasoline  engines.  By  L.  Elliott  Brookes.  Retail 
price,  $1.50. 

THE  AUTOMOBILE  HAND  BOOK.  By  L.  Elliott 
Brookes.     Retail  price  $1.50. 

FARM  ENGINES  AND  HOW  TO  RUN  THEM, 
AND  THE  TRACTION  ENGINE.  By  James  H. 
Stevenson.     Retail  price  $1.00. 

GAS  AND  OIL  ENGINES.    AUTOMOBILES. 

FARM  ENGINES,  TRACTION  ENGINES  AND 
HOW  TO  RUN  THEM. 

HOW  TO  RUN  A  THRESHING  MACHINE. 

QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS. 

THIS  WORK  IS  PROFUSELY  ILLUSTRATED. 

No.  3R9220  Standard  American  Gas  and  Oil  Engine, 
Automobile  and  Farm  Engine  Guide. 


OUR  SPECIAL  PRICE  $2.19. 
If  by  mail,  postage  extra,  22  cents. 


SEARS,  ROEBUCK  &  COMPANY, 
Chicago,  111. 


Modern  Machine  Shop  Practice 


INCLUDING 


PATTERN  MAKING  and 
FOUNDRY     PRACTICE 

By  BROOKES   and   HAND. 


Two  volumes  in  one.  800  pages.  Fully  illustrated. 
Bound  in  cloth.  Special,  Exclusive  Edition.  Printed 
by  Frederick  J.  Drake  &  Company  expressly  for 
Sears,  Roebuck  &  Company.     Contains: 

TWENTIETH  CENTURY  MACHINE  SHOP 
PRACTICE.  By  L.  Elliott  Brookes.  Retail  price 
$2.00. 

PATTERN  MAKING  AND  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE. 
By  L.  H.  Hand.  Retail  price  $1.50.  This  book  is 
intended  for  the  practical  instruction  of  machinists, 
engineers,  etc. 

MODERN  MACHINE  SHOP  PRACTICE.  It  clearly 
but  concisely  describes  the  properties  of  steam,  the 
indicator,  horse  power,  electricity,  measuring  de- 
vices, machinists'  tools. 

PATTERN  MAKING  AND  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE. 
Nearly  every  problem  explained  is  taken  from  an 
actual  pattern. 

HUNDREDS  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  These  illustra- 
tions show  views  of  the  latest  machines,  the  most 
up-to-date  and  improved  belt  and  motor-driven  ma- 
chine tools,  with  full  information  as  to  their  use  and 
operation. 

No.  3R9250  MODERN  MACHINE  SHOP  PRAC- 
TICE, including  PATTERN  MAKING  AND 
FOUNDRY  PRACTICE. 

OUR  SPECIAL  PRICE  $1.75. 
If  by  mail,  postage  extra,  24  cents. 


SEARS,  ROEBUCK  &  COMPANY, 
Chicago,  111. 


A  COMPLETE  ENCYCLOPEDIA 
OF  ELECTRICITY 

By  HORSTMANN  and  TOUSLEY 


Four  volumes  in  one.  Bound  in  full  Persian  morocco, 
Pocketbook  style,  with  flap.  Stamped  in  gold.  Full 
gold  edges.  600  Pages.  Fully  illustrated.  Special, 
Exclusive  Edition.  Printed  by  Frederick  J.  Drake 
&  Company  expressly  for  Sears,  Roebuck  &  Com- 
pany. The  following  four  important  works  by  Lead- 
ing Electrical  Authorities,  SWINGLE,  HORST- 
MANN and  TOUSLEY  are  contained  in  this  one 
volume. 

MODERN  ELECTRICAL  CONSTRUCTION.  Re- 
tail value  $1.50. 

MODERN  WIRING  DIAGRAMS  AND  DESCRIP- 
TIONS.    Retail  value  $1.50. 

ELECTRICAL  WIRING  AND  CONSTRUCTION 
TABLES.     Retail  value  $1.50. 

DYNAMO  TENDING  FOR  ENGINEERS.  Retail 
value  $1.50. 

Making  the  full  retail  value  if  the  STANDARD 
AMERICAN  ELECTRICIAN  $6.00 

THIS  COMPLETE  AND  AUTHORITATIVE  WORK  IN- 
CLUDES ELECTRICAL  CONSTRUCTION.  WIRING.  DIA- 
GRAMS AND  DESCRIPTIONS.  ELECTRICAL  WIRING 
CONSTRUCTION  TABLES.  DYNAMO  TENDING  FOR  EN- 
GINEERS, and  is  PROFUSELY  ILLUSTRATED. 

No.  3R9230  STANDARD  AMERICAN  ELECTRI- 
CIAN. 

OUR  SPECIAL  PRICE  $2.68. 
If  by  mail,  postage  extra,  20  cents. 


SEARS,  ROEBUCK  &  COMPANY, 
Chicago,  111. 


Builders'  Reliable  Estimator 

■■■o^HHHBi«Bni   and   ■■■■■■■■■■^^■■■■■■i 

Contractors'  Guide 


By  FRED  T.  HODGSON. 


Two  volumes  in  one,  nearly  550  pages.  Fully  illus- 
trated with  diagrams.  Bound  in  silk  cloth.  Special, 
Exclusive  Edition.  Printed  by  Frederick  J.  Drake  & 
Company  expressly  for  Sears,  Roebuck  &  Company. 

HODGSON'S  MODERN  ESTIMATOR  AND  CON- 
TRACTORS' GUIDE,  for  pricing  all  builders'  work. 
By  Fred  T.  Hodgson.     Retail  price  $1.50. 

THE  BUILDERS'  AND  CONTRACTORS'  GUIDE 
to  correct  measurement  for  estimating.  By  Fred 
T.  Hodgson  and  W.  M.  Brown,  C.  E.  Retail  price 
$1.50. 

FIFTY  HOUSE  PLANS,  showing  perspective  views 
and  floor  plans.    Retail  price  $1.00. 

A  COMPLETE  GUIDE  FOR  PRICING  ALL 
BUILDERS'  WORK.  It  contains  many  tables,  rules 
and  useful  memoranda.  GUIDE  TO  CORRECT 
MEASUREMENTS  is  found  in  the  second  part  of 
this  work.  This  shows  how  all  kinds  of  odd,  crooked 
and  difficult  measurements  may  be  taken,  to  secure 
correct  results.     Profusely  illustrated. 

No.  3R9120  BUILDERS'  RELIABLE  ESTIMATOR 
AND   CONTRACTORS*  GUIDE. 


OUR  SPECIAL  PRICE  $1.45. 
If  by  mail,  postage  extra  per  set,  23  cents. 


SEARS,  ROEBUCK  &  COMPANY, 
Chicago,  111. 


American  Biach smithing,  Tooismiihs 


AND: 


steel  workers'  Manual 

By  HOLMSTROM  and  HOLFORD. 


Two  volumes  in  one.  600  pages.  Fully  illustrated. 
Bound  in  silk  cloth.  Special,  Exclusive  Edition. 
Printed  by  Frederick  J.  Drake  &  Company  expressly 
for  Sears,  Roebuck  &  Company.     Contains: 

MODERN  BLACKSMITHING,  RATIONAL 
HORSESHOEING  AND  WAGON  MAKING.  By 
J.  G.  Holmstrom.     Retail  price  $1.00. 

CORRECT  HORSE,  MULE  AND  OX  SHOEING. 
By  J.  G.  Holmstrom.     Retail  price  $1.00. 

TWENTIETH  CENTURY  TOOLSMITHS'  AND 
STEEL  WORKERS'  MANUAL.  By  Holford. 
Retail  price  $1.50. 

BLACKSMITHING.  It  comprises  particulars  and  de- 
tails regarding  the  anvil,  tool  table,  sledge,  tongs, 
hammers,  how  to  use  them,  correct  position  at  anvil, 
welding,  tube  expanding,  the  horse,  anatomy  of  the 
foot,  horseshoes,  horseshoeing,  hardening  a  plow- 
share, babbitting,  etc. 

TOOLSMITHING  AND  STEEL  WORKING.  Covers 
composition  of  cast  tool  steel,  heating,  forging,  ham- 
mering, hardening,  etc.  Tempering,  welding,  anneal- 
ing, cause  of  tools  cracking  when  hardening. 

LINE  ENGRAVINGS  AND  DIAGRAMS.  The  book 
is  very  fully  illustrated  and  contains  numerous  work- 
ing rules  and  recipes.  Experienced  blacksmiths,  steel 
and  tool  workers,  as  well  as  beginners,  will  get 
pleasure  and  helpful  suggestions  from  this  book. 

No.  3R9240  AMERICAN  BLACKSMITHING  TOOL- 
SMITH      AND      STEELWORKERS'      MANUAL. 


OUR  SPECIAL  PRICE,  $1.62. 
If  by  mail,  postage  extra,  22  cents. 


SEARS,  ROEBUCK  &  COMPANY, 
Chicago,  111. 


Modern  Painting,  Hardwood 
Finishing  and  Sign  writing 

Covering  Every  Branch  of  this  Profession. 


By  ARMSTRONG,  HODGSON  AND  DELAMOTTE. 


Three  volumes  in  one.  Nearly  700  pages.  Fully  illus- 
trated. Special,  Exclusive  Edition.  Printed  by  Fred- 
erick J.  Drake  &  Company  expressly  for  Sears,  Roe- 
buck &  Company.     Contains: 

THE   PAINTER'S   ENCYCLOPEDIA.     By  Geo.   D. 

Armstrong.     Retail  price  $1.50. 

THE  UP-TO-DATE  HARDWOOD  FINISHER,  in- 
cluding manipulation  of  wood  of  all  kinds.  By  Fred 
T.  Hodgson.     Retail  price  $1.00. 

SIGN  WRITING.  By  F.  Delamotte.  Retail  price 
$1.50. 

Including 

PAINTS  AND  PAINTING, 

WOOD  FINISHING, 

MODERN  UP-TO-DATE  ARTISTIC 
SIGN  PAINTING, 

AND  PROFUSELY  ILLUSTRATED. 
No.    3R9150    MODERN    PAINTING,    HARDWOOD 

FINISHING  AND  SIGN  WRITING. 


OUR  SPECIAL  PRICE  $1.89. 
If  by  mail,  postage  extra,  23  cents. 


SEARS,  ROEBUCK  &  COMPANY, 
Chicago,  111. 


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